Create a struct with all of Hugo's config options

Primary motivation is documentation, but it will also hopefully simplify the code.

Also,

* Lower case the default output format names; this is in line with the custom ones (map keys) and how
it's treated all the places. This avoids doing `stringds.EqualFold` everywhere.

Closes #10896
Closes #10620

337 files changed, 13003 insertions, 14524 deletions

diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 00b5b2e80..b170fe204 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
 
-*.test
\ No newline at end of file
+*.test
+imports.*
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/cache/docs.go b/cache/docs.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..babecec22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/cache/docs.go
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+// Package cache contains the differenct cache implementations.
+package cache
diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache.go b/cache/filecache/filecache.go
index 88a466218..05d9379b4 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache.go
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ import (
 var ErrFatal = errors.New("fatal filecache error")
 
 const (
-	filecacheRootDirname = "filecache"
+	FilecacheRootDirname = "filecache"
 )
 
 // Cache caches a set of files in a directory. This is usually a file on
@@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ func (c *Cache) isExpired(modTime time.Time) bool {
 }
 
 // For testing
-func (c *Cache) getString(id string) string {
+func (c *Cache) GetString(id string) string {
 	id = cleanID(id)
 
 	c.nlocker.Lock(id)
@@ -328,38 +328,24 @@ func (f Caches) Get(name string) *Cache {
 // NewCaches creates a new set of file caches from the given
 // configuration.
 func NewCaches(p *helpers.PathSpec) (Caches, error) {
-	var dcfg Configs
-	if c, ok := p.Cfg.Get("filecacheConfigs").(Configs); ok {
-		dcfg = c
-	} else {
-		var err error
-		dcfg, err = DecodeConfig(p.Fs.Source, p.Cfg)
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
-	}
-
+	dcfg := p.Cfg.GetConfigSection("caches").(Configs)
 	fs := p.Fs.Source
 
 	m := make(Caches)
 	for k, v := range dcfg {
 		var cfs afero.Fs
 
-		if v.isResourceDir {
+		if v.IsResourceDir {
 			cfs = p.BaseFs.ResourcesCache
 		} else {
 			cfs = fs
 		}
 
 		if cfs == nil {
-			// TODO(bep) we still have some places that do not initialize the
-			// full dependencies of a site, e.g. the import Jekyll command.
-			// That command does not need these caches, so let us just continue
-			// for now.
-			continue
+			panic("nil fs")
 		}
 
-		baseDir := v.Dir
+		baseDir := v.DirCompiled
 
 		if err := cfs.MkdirAll(baseDir, 0777); err != nil && !os.IsExist(err) {
 			return nil, err
@@ -368,7 +354,7 @@ func NewCaches(p *helpers.PathSpec) (Caches, error) {
 		bfs := afero.NewBasePathFs(cfs, baseDir)
 
 		var pruneAllRootDir string
-		if k == cacheKeyModules {
+		if k == CacheKeyModules {
 			pruneAllRootDir = "pkg"
 		}
 
diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache_config.go b/cache/filecache/filecache_config.go
index a82133ab7..e8019578a 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache_config.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache_config.go
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
+// Package filecache provides a file based cache for Hugo.
 package filecache
 
 import (
@@ -21,11 +22,8 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-
 	"errors"
 
 	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
@@ -33,98 +31,102 @@ import (
 )
 
 const (
-	cachesConfigKey = "caches"
-
 	resourcesGenDir = ":resourceDir/_gen"
 	cacheDirProject = ":cacheDir/:project"
 )
 
-var defaultCacheConfig = Config{
+var defaultCacheConfig = FileCacheConfig{
 	MaxAge: -1, // Never expire
 	Dir:    cacheDirProject,
 }
 
 const (
-	cacheKeyGetJSON     = "getjson"
-	cacheKeyGetCSV      = "getcsv"
-	cacheKeyImages      = "images"
-	cacheKeyAssets      = "assets"
-	cacheKeyModules     = "modules"
-	cacheKeyGetResource = "getresource"
+	CacheKeyGetJSON     = "getjson"
+	CacheKeyGetCSV      = "getcsv"
+	CacheKeyImages      = "images"
+	CacheKeyAssets      = "assets"
+	CacheKeyModules     = "modules"
+	CacheKeyGetResource = "getresource"
 )
 
-type Configs map[string]Config
+type Configs map[string]FileCacheConfig
 
+// For internal use.
 func (c Configs) CacheDirModules() string {
-	return c[cacheKeyModules].Dir
+	return c[CacheKeyModules].DirCompiled
 }
 
 var defaultCacheConfigs = Configs{
-	cacheKeyModules: {
+	CacheKeyModules: {
 		MaxAge: -1,
 		Dir:    ":cacheDir/modules",
 	},
-	cacheKeyGetJSON: defaultCacheConfig,
-	cacheKeyGetCSV:  defaultCacheConfig,
-	cacheKeyImages: {
+	CacheKeyGetJSON: defaultCacheConfig,
+	CacheKeyGetCSV:  defaultCacheConfig,
+	CacheKeyImages: {
 		MaxAge: -1,
 		Dir:    resourcesGenDir,
 	},
-	cacheKeyAssets: {
+	CacheKeyAssets: {
 		MaxAge: -1,
 		Dir:    resourcesGenDir,
 	},
-	cacheKeyGetResource: Config{
+	CacheKeyGetResource: FileCacheConfig{
 		MaxAge: -1, // Never expire
 		Dir:    cacheDirProject,
 	},
 }
 
-type Config struct {
+type FileCacheConfig struct {
 	// Max age of cache entries in this cache. Any items older than this will
 	// be removed and not returned from the cache.
-	// a negative value means forever, 0 means cache is disabled.
+	// A negative value means forever, 0 means cache is disabled.
+	// Hugo is leninent with what types it accepts here, but we recommend using
+	// a duration string, a sequence of  decimal numbers, each with optional fraction and a unit suffix,
+	// such as "300ms", "1.5h" or "2h45m".
+	// Valid time units are "ns", "us" (or "µs"), "ms", "s", "m", "h".
 	MaxAge time.Duration
 
 	// The directory where files are stored.
-	Dir string
+	Dir         string
+	DirCompiled string `json:"-"`
 
 	// Will resources/_gen will get its own composite filesystem that
 	// also checks any theme.
-	isResourceDir bool
+	IsResourceDir bool
 }
 
 // GetJSONCache gets the file cache for getJSON.
 func (f Caches) GetJSONCache() *Cache {
-	return f[cacheKeyGetJSON]
+	return f[CacheKeyGetJSON]
 }
 
 // GetCSVCache gets the file cache for getCSV.
 func (f Caches) GetCSVCache() *Cache {
-	return f[cacheKeyGetCSV]
+	return f[CacheKeyGetCSV]
 }
 
 // ImageCache gets the file cache for processed images.
 func (f Caches) ImageCache() *Cache {
-	return f[cacheKeyImages]
+	return f[CacheKeyImages]
 }
 
 // ModulesCache gets the file cache for Hugo Modules.
 func (f Caches) ModulesCache() *Cache {
-	return f[cacheKeyModules]
+	return f[CacheKeyModules]
 }
 
 // AssetsCache gets the file cache for assets (processed resources, SCSS etc.).
 func (f Caches) AssetsCache() *Cache {
-	return f[cacheKeyAssets]
+	return f[CacheKeyAssets]
 }
 
 // GetResourceCache gets the file cache for remote resources.
 func (f Caches) GetResourceCache() *Cache {
-	return f[cacheKeyGetResource]
+	return f[CacheKeyGetResource]
 }
 
-func DecodeConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (Configs, error) {
+func DecodeConfig(fs afero.Fs, bcfg config.BaseConfig, m map[string]any) (Configs, error) {
 	c := make(Configs)
 	valid := make(map[string]bool)
 	// Add defaults
@@ -133,8 +135,6 @@ func DecodeConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (Configs, error) {
 		valid[k] = true
 	}
 
-	m := cfg.GetStringMap(cachesConfigKey)
-
 	_, isOsFs := fs.(*afero.OsFs)
 
 	for k, v := range m {
@@ -170,9 +170,6 @@ func DecodeConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (Configs, error) {
 		c[name] = cc
 	}
 
-	// This is a very old flag in Hugo, but we need to respect it.
-	disabled := cfg.GetBool("ignoreCache")
-
 	for k, v := range c {
 		dir := filepath.ToSlash(filepath.Clean(v.Dir))
 		hadSlash := strings.HasPrefix(dir, "/")
@@ -180,12 +177,12 @@ func DecodeConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (Configs, error) {
 
 		for i, part := range parts {
 			if strings.HasPrefix(part, ":") {
-				resolved, isResource, err := resolveDirPlaceholder(fs, cfg, part)
+				resolved, isResource, err := resolveDirPlaceholder(fs, bcfg, part)
 				if err != nil {
 					return c, err
 				}
 				if isResource {
-					v.isResourceDir = true
+					v.IsResourceDir = true
 				}
 				parts[i] = resolved
 			}
@@ -195,33 +192,29 @@ func DecodeConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (Configs, error) {
 		if hadSlash {
 			dir = "/" + dir
 		}
-		v.Dir = filepath.Clean(filepath.FromSlash(dir))
+		v.DirCompiled = filepath.Clean(filepath.FromSlash(dir))
 
-		if !v.isResourceDir {
-			if isOsFs && !filepath.IsAbs(v.Dir) {
-				return c, fmt.Errorf("%q must resolve to an absolute directory", v.Dir)
+		if !v.IsResourceDir {
+			if isOsFs && !filepath.IsAbs(v.DirCompiled) {
+				return c, fmt.Errorf("%q must resolve to an absolute directory", v.DirCompiled)
 			}
 
 			// Avoid cache in root, e.g. / (Unix) or c:\ (Windows)
-			if len(strings.TrimPrefix(v.Dir, filepath.VolumeName(v.Dir))) == 1 {
-				return c, fmt.Errorf("%q is a root folder and not allowed as cache dir", v.Dir)
+			if len(strings.TrimPrefix(v.DirCompiled, filepath.VolumeName(v.DirCompiled))) == 1 {
+				return c, fmt.Errorf("%q is a root folder and not allowed as cache dir", v.DirCompiled)
 			}
 		}
 
-		if !strings.HasPrefix(v.Dir, "_gen") {
+		if !strings.HasPrefix(v.DirCompiled, "_gen") {
 			// We do cache eviction (file removes) and since the user can set
 			// his/hers own cache directory, we really want to make sure
 			// we do not delete any files that do not belong to this cache.
 			// We do add the cache name as the root, but this is an extra safe
 			// guard. We skip the files inside /resources/_gen/ because
 			// that would be breaking.
-			v.Dir = filepath.Join(v.Dir, filecacheRootDirname, k)
+			v.DirCompiled = filepath.Join(v.DirCompiled, FilecacheRootDirname, k)
 		} else {
-			v.Dir = filepath.Join(v.Dir, k)
-		}
-
-		if disabled {
-			v.MaxAge = 0
+			v.DirCompiled = filepath.Join(v.DirCompiled, k)
 		}
 
 		c[k] = v
@@ -231,17 +224,15 @@ func DecodeConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (Configs, error) {
 }
 
 // Resolves :resourceDir => /myproject/resources etc., :cacheDir => ...
-func resolveDirPlaceholder(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider, placeholder string) (cacheDir string, isResource bool, err error) {
-	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
+func resolveDirPlaceholder(fs afero.Fs, bcfg config.BaseConfig, placeholder string) (cacheDir string, isResource bool, err error) {
 
 	switch strings.ToLower(placeholder) {
 	case ":resourcedir":
 		return "", true, nil
 	case ":cachedir":
-		d, err := helpers.GetCacheDir(fs, cfg)
-		return d, false, err
+		return bcfg.CacheDir, false, nil
 	case ":project":
-		return filepath.Base(workingDir), false, nil
+		return filepath.Base(bcfg.WorkingDir), false, nil
 	}
 
 	return "", false, fmt.Errorf("%q is not a valid placeholder (valid values are :cacheDir or :resourceDir)", placeholder)
diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go b/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go
index 1ed020ef1..f93c7060e 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache_config_test.go
@@ -11,18 +11,19 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package filecache
+package filecache_test
 
 import (
 	"path/filepath"
 	"runtime"
-	"strings"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
@@ -57,22 +58,20 @@ dir = "/path/to/c4"
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(configStr, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-	decoded, err := DecodeConfig(fs, cfg)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
+	decoded := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs, cfg).Base.Caches
 	c.Assert(len(decoded), qt.Equals, 6)
 
 	c2 := decoded["getcsv"]
 	c.Assert(c2.MaxAge.String(), qt.Equals, "11h0m0s")
-	c.Assert(c2.Dir, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/path/to/c2/filecache/getcsv"))
+	c.Assert(c2.DirCompiled, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/path/to/c2/filecache/getcsv"))
 
 	c3 := decoded["images"]
 	c.Assert(c3.MaxAge, qt.Equals, time.Duration(-1))
-	c.Assert(c3.Dir, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/path/to/c3/filecache/images"))
+	c.Assert(c3.DirCompiled, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/path/to/c3/filecache/images"))
 
 	c4 := decoded["getresource"]
 	c.Assert(c4.MaxAge, qt.Equals, time.Duration(-1))
-	c.Assert(c4.Dir, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/path/to/c4/filecache/getresource"))
+	c.Assert(c4.DirCompiled, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/path/to/c4/filecache/getresource"))
 }
 
 func TestDecodeConfigIgnoreCache(t *testing.T) {
@@ -106,9 +105,7 @@ dir = "/path/to/c4"
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(configStr, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-	decoded, err := DecodeConfig(fs, cfg)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
+	decoded := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs, cfg).Base.Caches
 	c.Assert(len(decoded), qt.Equals, 6)
 
 	for _, v := range decoded {
@@ -118,7 +115,7 @@ dir = "/path/to/c4"
 
 func TestDecodeConfigDefault(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := newTestConfig()
+	cfg := config.New()
 
 	if runtime.GOOS == "windows" {
 		cfg.Set("resourceDir", "c:\\cache\\resources")
@@ -128,71 +125,22 @@ func TestDecodeConfigDefault(t *testing.T) {
 		cfg.Set("resourceDir", "/cache/resources")
 		cfg.Set("cacheDir", "/cache/thecache")
 	}
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", filepath.FromSlash("/my/cool/hugoproject"))
 
 	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-
-	decoded, err := DecodeConfig(fs, cfg)
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
+	decoded := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs, cfg).Base.Caches
 	c.Assert(len(decoded), qt.Equals, 6)
 
-	imgConfig := decoded[cacheKeyImages]
-	jsonConfig := decoded[cacheKeyGetJSON]
+	imgConfig := decoded[filecache.CacheKeyImages]
+	jsonConfig := decoded[filecache.CacheKeyGetJSON]
 
 	if runtime.GOOS == "windows" {
-		c.Assert(imgConfig.Dir, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("_gen/images"))
+		c.Assert(imgConfig.DirCompiled, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("_gen/images"))
 	} else {
-		c.Assert(imgConfig.Dir, qt.Equals, "_gen/images")
-		c.Assert(jsonConfig.Dir, qt.Equals, "/cache/thecache/hugoproject/filecache/getjson")
+		c.Assert(imgConfig.DirCompiled, qt.Equals, "_gen/images")
+		c.Assert(jsonConfig.DirCompiled, qt.Equals, "/cache/thecache/hugoproject/filecache/getjson")
 	}
 
-	c.Assert(imgConfig.isResourceDir, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(jsonConfig.isResourceDir, qt.Equals, false)
-}
-
-func TestDecodeConfigInvalidDir(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	configStr := `
-resourceDir = "myresources"
-contentDir = "content"
-dataDir = "data"
-i18nDir = "i18n"
-layoutDir = "layouts"
-assetDir = "assets"
-archeTypedir = "archetypes"
-
-[caches]
-[caches.getJSON]
-maxAge = "10m"
-dir = "/"
-
-`
-	if runtime.GOOS == "windows" {
-		configStr = strings.Replace(configStr, "/", "c:\\\\", 1)
-	}
-
-	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(configStr, "toml")
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-
-	_, err = DecodeConfig(fs, cfg)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-}
-
-func newTestConfig() config.Provider {
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	cfg.Set("workingDir", filepath.FromSlash("/my/cool/hugoproject"))
-	cfg.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	cfg.Set("dataDir", "data")
-	cfg.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	cfg.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	cfg.Set("layoutDir", "layouts")
-	cfg.Set("archetypeDir", "archetypes")
-	cfg.Set("assetDir", "assets")
-
-	return cfg
+	c.Assert(imgConfig.IsResourceDir, qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(jsonConfig.IsResourceDir, qt.Equals, false)
 }
diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner.go b/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner.go
index b8aa76c15..e1b7f1947 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner.go
@@ -31,7 +31,6 @@ import (
 func (c Caches) Prune() (int, error) {
 	counter := 0
 	for k, cache := range c {
-
 		count, err := cache.Prune(false)
 
 		counter += count
@@ -58,6 +57,7 @@ func (c *Cache) Prune(force bool) (int, error) {
 	counter := 0
 
 	err := afero.Walk(c.Fs, "", func(name string, info os.FileInfo, err error) error {
+
 		if info == nil {
 			return nil
 		}
diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner_test.go b/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner_test.go
index 46e1317ce..f0cecfe9f 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner_test.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache_pruner_test.go
@@ -11,13 +11,14 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package filecache
+package filecache_test
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
@@ -52,10 +53,10 @@ maxAge = "200ms"
 dir = ":resourceDir/_gen"
 `
 
-	for _, name := range []string{cacheKeyGetCSV, cacheKeyGetJSON, cacheKeyAssets, cacheKeyImages} {
+	for _, name := range []string{filecache.CacheKeyGetCSV, filecache.CacheKeyGetJSON, filecache.CacheKeyAssets, filecache.CacheKeyImages} {
 		msg := qt.Commentf("cache: %s", name)
 		p := newPathsSpec(t, afero.NewMemMapFs(), configStr)
-		caches, err := NewCaches(p)
+		caches, err := filecache.NewCaches(p)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 		cache := caches[name]
 		for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
@@ -75,7 +76,7 @@ dir = ":resourceDir/_gen"
 
 		for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
 			id := fmt.Sprintf("i%d", i)
-			v := cache.getString(id)
+			v := cache.GetString(id)
 			if i < 5 {
 				c.Assert(v, qt.Equals, "")
 			} else {
@@ -83,7 +84,7 @@ dir = ":resourceDir/_gen"
 			}
 		}
 
-		caches, err = NewCaches(p)
+		caches, err = filecache.NewCaches(p)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 		cache = caches[name]
 		// Touch one and then prune.
@@ -98,7 +99,7 @@ dir = ":resourceDir/_gen"
 		// Now only the i5 should be left.
 		for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
 			id := fmt.Sprintf("i%d", i)
-			v := cache.getString(id)
+			v := cache.GetString(id)
 			if i != 5 {
 				c.Assert(v, qt.Equals, "")
 			} else {
diff --git a/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go b/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go
index 6b96a8601..61f9eda64 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/filecache_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package filecache
+package filecache_test
 
 import (
 	"errors"
@@ -23,13 +23,10 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gobwas/glob"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugio"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
@@ -83,27 +80,19 @@ dir = ":cacheDir/c"
 
 		p := newPathsSpec(t, osfs, configStr)
 
-		caches, err := NewCaches(p)
+		caches, err := filecache.NewCaches(p)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 		cache := caches.Get("GetJSON")
 		c.Assert(cache, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		c.Assert(cache.maxAge.String(), qt.Equals, "10h0m0s")
 
 		bfs, ok := cache.Fs.(*afero.BasePathFs)
 		c.Assert(ok, qt.Equals, true)
 		filename, err := bfs.RealPath("key")
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		if test.cacheDir != "" {
-			c.Assert(filename, qt.Equals, filepath.Join(test.cacheDir, "c/"+filecacheRootDirname+"/getjson/key"))
-		} else {
-			// Temp dir.
-			c.Assert(filename, qt.Matches, ".*hugo_cache.*"+filecacheRootDirname+".*key")
-		}
 
 		cache = caches.Get("Images")
 		c.Assert(cache, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		c.Assert(cache.maxAge, qt.Equals, time.Duration(-1))
 		bfs, ok = cache.Fs.(*afero.BasePathFs)
 		c.Assert(ok, qt.Equals, true)
 		filename, _ = bfs.RealPath("key")
@@ -125,7 +114,7 @@ dir = ":cacheDir/c"
 			return []byte("bcd"), nil
 		}
 
-		for _, ca := range []*Cache{caches.ImageCache(), caches.AssetsCache(), caches.GetJSONCache(), caches.GetCSVCache()} {
+		for _, ca := range []*filecache.Cache{caches.ImageCache(), caches.AssetsCache(), caches.GetJSONCache(), caches.GetCSVCache()} {
 			for i := 0; i < 2; i++ {
 				info, r, err := ca.GetOrCreate("a", rf("abc"))
 				c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -160,7 +149,7 @@ dir = ":cacheDir/c"
 		c.Assert(info.Name, qt.Equals, "mykey")
 		io.WriteString(w, "Hugo is great!")
 		w.Close()
-		c.Assert(caches.ImageCache().getString("mykey"), qt.Equals, "Hugo is great!")
+		c.Assert(caches.ImageCache().GetString("mykey"), qt.Equals, "Hugo is great!")
 
 		info, r, err := caches.ImageCache().Get("mykey")
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -201,7 +190,7 @@ dir = "/cache/c"
 
 	p := newPathsSpec(t, afero.NewMemMapFs(), configStr)
 
-	caches, err := NewCaches(p)
+	caches, err := filecache.NewCaches(p)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	const cacheName = "getjson"
@@ -244,11 +233,11 @@ func TestFileCacheReadOrCreateErrorInRead(t *testing.T) {
 
 	var result string
 
-	rf := func(failLevel int) func(info ItemInfo, r io.ReadSeeker) error {
-		return func(info ItemInfo, r io.ReadSeeker) error {
+	rf := func(failLevel int) func(info filecache.ItemInfo, r io.ReadSeeker) error {
+		return func(info filecache.ItemInfo, r io.ReadSeeker) error {
 			if failLevel > 0 {
 				if failLevel > 1 {
-					return ErrFatal
+					return filecache.ErrFatal
 				}
 				return errors.New("fail")
 			}
@@ -260,8 +249,8 @@ func TestFileCacheReadOrCreateErrorInRead(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 
-	bf := func(s string) func(info ItemInfo, w io.WriteCloser) error {
-		return func(info ItemInfo, w io.WriteCloser) error {
+	bf := func(s string) func(info filecache.ItemInfo, w io.WriteCloser) error {
+		return func(info filecache.ItemInfo, w io.WriteCloser) error {
 			defer w.Close()
 			result = s
 			_, err := w.Write([]byte(s))
@@ -269,7 +258,7 @@ func TestFileCacheReadOrCreateErrorInRead(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 
-	cache := NewCache(afero.NewMemMapFs(), 100*time.Hour, "")
+	cache := filecache.NewCache(afero.NewMemMapFs(), 100*time.Hour, "")
 
 	const id = "a32"
 
@@ -283,60 +272,15 @@ func TestFileCacheReadOrCreateErrorInRead(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(result, qt.Equals, "v3")
 	_, err = cache.ReadOrCreate(id, rf(2), bf("v3"))
-	c.Assert(err, qt.Equals, ErrFatal)
-}
-
-func TestCleanID(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	c.Assert(cleanID(filepath.FromSlash("/a/b//c.txt")), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("a/b/c.txt"))
-	c.Assert(cleanID(filepath.FromSlash("a/b//c.txt")), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("a/b/c.txt"))
-}
-
-func initConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) error {
-	if _, err := langs.LoadLanguageSettings(cfg, nil); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	modConfig, err := modules.DecodeConfig(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-	themesDir := cfg.GetString("themesDir")
-	if !filepath.IsAbs(themesDir) {
-		themesDir = filepath.Join(workingDir, themesDir)
-	}
-	globAll := glob.MustCompile("**", '/')
-	modulesClient := modules.NewClient(modules.ClientConfig{
-		Fs:           fs,
-		WorkingDir:   workingDir,
-		ThemesDir:    themesDir,
-		ModuleConfig: modConfig,
-		IgnoreVendor: globAll,
-	})
-
-	moduleConfig, err := modulesClient.Collect()
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	if err := modules.ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(cfg, moduleConfig.ActiveModules[len(moduleConfig.ActiveModules)-1]); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	cfg.Set("allModules", moduleConfig.ActiveModules)
-
-	return nil
+	c.Assert(err, qt.Equals, filecache.ErrFatal)
 }
 
 func newPathsSpec(t *testing.T, fs afero.Fs, configStr string) *helpers.PathSpec {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(configStr, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	initConfig(fs, cfg)
-	config.SetBaseTestDefaults(cfg)
-	p, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewFrom(fs, cfg), cfg, nil)
+	acfg := testconfig.GetTestConfig(fs, cfg)
+	p, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewFrom(fs, acfg.BaseConfig()), acfg, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	return p
 }
diff --git a/cache/filecache/integration_test.go b/cache/filecache/integration_test.go
index 26653fc35..909895ec5 100644
--- a/cache/filecache/integration_test.go
+++ b/cache/filecache/integration_test.go
@@ -15,6 +15,9 @@ package filecache_test
 
 import (
 	"path/filepath"
+
+	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
+
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
@@ -62,6 +65,7 @@ title: "Home"
 -- assets/a/pixel.png --
 iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mNkYPhfDwAChwGA60e6kgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==
 -- layouts/index.html --
+{{ warnf "HOME!" }}
 {{ $img := resources.GetMatch "**.png" }}
 {{ $img = $img.Resize "3x3" }}
 {{ $img.RelPermalink }}
@@ -71,10 +75,11 @@ iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mNkYPhfDwAChwGA60e6kgAA
 `
 
 	b := hugolib.NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
-		hugolib.IntegrationTestConfig{T: t, TxtarString: files, RunGC: true, NeedsOsFS: true},
+		hugolib.IntegrationTestConfig{T: t, TxtarString: files, Running: true, RunGC: true, NeedsOsFS: true, LogLevel: jww.LevelInfo},
 	).Build()
 
 	b.Assert(b.GCCount, qt.Equals, 0)
+	b.Assert(b.H, qt.IsNotNil)
 
 	imagesCacheDir := filepath.Join("_gen", "images")
 	_, err := b.H.BaseFs.ResourcesCache.Stat(imagesCacheDir)
@@ -86,9 +91,11 @@ iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVR42mNkYPhfDwAChwGA60e6kgAA
 	time.Sleep(300 * time.Millisecond)
 
 	b.RenameFile("assets/a/pixel.png", "assets/b/pixel2.png").Build()
+
 	b.Assert(b.GCCount, qt.Equals, 1)
 	// Build it again to GC the empty a dir.
 	b.Build()
+
 	_, err = b.H.BaseFs.ResourcesCache.Stat(filepath.Join(imagesCacheDir, "a"))
 	b.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 	_, err = b.H.BaseFs.ResourcesCache.Stat(imagesCacheDir)
diff --git a/commands/commandeer.go b/commands/commandeer.go
index 45385d509..ed578e9bf 100644
--- a/commands/commandeer.go
+++ b/commands/commandeer.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,513 +14,593 @@
 package commands
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
-	"net"
 	"os"
+	"os/signal"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"regexp"
 	"sync"
+	"sync/atomic"
+	"syscall"
 	"time"
 
-	hconfig "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 
-	"golang.org/x/sync/semaphore"
+	"github.com/bep/clock"
+	"github.com/bep/lazycache"
+	"github.com/bep/overlayfs"
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hstrings"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cast"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-
-	"github.com/bep/clock"
-	"github.com/bep/debounce"
-	"github.com/bep/overlayfs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-type commandeerHugoState struct {
-	*deps.DepsCfg
-	hugoSites *hugolib.HugoSites
-	fsCreate  sync.Once
-	created   chan struct{}
-}
-
-type commandeer struct {
-	*commandeerHugoState
-
-	logger       loggers.Logger
-	serverConfig *config.Server
-
-	buildLock func() (unlock func(), err error)
-
-	// Loading state
-	mustHaveConfigFile bool
-	failOnInitErr      bool
-	running            bool
-
-	// Currently only set when in "fast render mode". But it seems to
-	// be fast enough that we could maybe just add it for all server modes.
-	changeDetector *fileChangeDetector
-
-	// We need to reuse these on server rebuilds.
-	publishDirFs       afero.Fs
-	publishDirStaticFs afero.Fs
-	publishDirServerFs afero.Fs
-
-	h    *hugoBuilderCommon
-	ftch flagsToConfigHandler
-
-	visitedURLs *types.EvictingStringQueue
-
-	cfgInit func(c *commandeer) error
-
-	// We watch these for changes.
-	configFiles []string
-
-	// Used in cases where we get flooded with events in server mode.
-	debounce func(f func())
-
-	serverPorts []serverPortListener
-
-	languages          langs.Languages
-	doLiveReload       bool
-	renderStaticToDisk bool
-	fastRenderMode     bool
-	showErrorInBrowser bool
-	wasError           bool
-
-	configured bool
-	paused     bool
-
-	fullRebuildSem *semaphore.Weighted
+var (
+	errHelp = errors.New("help requested")
+)
 
-	// Any error from the last build.
-	buildErr error
+// Execute executes a command.
+func Execute(args []string) error {
+	x, err := newExec()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	args = mapLegacyArgs(args)
+	cd, err := x.Execute(context.Background(), args)
+	if err != nil {
+		if err == errHelp {
+			cd.CobraCommand.Help()
+			fmt.Println()
+			return nil
+		}
+		if simplecobra.IsCommandError(err) {
+			// Print the help, but also return the error to fail the command.
+			cd.CobraCommand.Help()
+			fmt.Println()
+		}
+	}
+	return err
 }
 
-type serverPortListener struct {
-	p  int
-	ln net.Listener
+type commonConfig struct {
+	mu      sync.Mutex
+	configs *allconfig.Configs
+	cfg     config.Provider
+	fs      *hugofs.Fs
 }
 
-func newCommandeerHugoState() *commandeerHugoState {
-	return &commandeerHugoState{
-		created: make(chan struct{}),
-	}
+func (c *commonConfig) getFs() *hugofs.Fs {
+	c.mu.Lock()
+	defer c.mu.Unlock()
+	return c.fs
 }
 
-func (c *commandeerHugoState) hugo() *hugolib.HugoSites {
-	<-c.created
-	return c.hugoSites
+// This is the root command.
+type rootCommand struct {
+	Printf  func(format string, v ...interface{})
+	Println func(a ...interface{})
+	Out     io.Writer
+
+	logger loggers.Logger
+
+	// The main cache busting key for the caches below.
+	configVersionID atomic.Int32
+
+	// Some, but not all commands need access to these.
+	// Some needs more than one, so keep them in a small cache.
+	commonConfigs *lazycache.Cache[int32, *commonConfig]
+	hugoSites     *lazycache.Cache[int32, *hugolib.HugoSites]
+
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+
+	// Flags
+	source          string
+	baseURL         string
+	buildWatch      bool
+	forceSyncStatic bool
+	panicOnWarning  bool
+	environment     string
+	poll            string
+	gc              bool
+
+	// Profile flags (for debugging of performance problems)
+	cpuprofile   string
+	memprofile   string
+	mutexprofile string
+	traceprofile string
+	printm       bool
+
+	// TODO(bep) var vs string
+	logging        bool
+	verbose        bool
+	verboseLog     bool
+	debug          bool
+	quiet          bool
+	renderToMemory bool
+
+	cfgFile string
+	cfgDir  string
+	logFile string
 }
 
-func (c *commandeerHugoState) hugoTry() *hugolib.HugoSites {
-	select {
-	case <-c.created:
-		return c.hugoSites
-	case <-time.After(time.Millisecond * 100):
-		return nil
+func (r *rootCommand) Build(cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, bcfg hugolib.BuildCfg, cfg config.Provider) (*hugolib.HugoSites, error) {
+	h, err := r.Hugo(cfg)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if err := h.Build(bcfg); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
+
+	return h, nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) errCount() int {
-	return int(c.logger.LogCounters().ErrorCounter.Count())
+func (r *rootCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return r.commands
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) getErrorWithContext() any {
-	errCount := c.errCount()
+func (r *rootCommand) ConfigFromConfig(key int32, oldConf *commonConfig) (*commonConfig, error) {
+	cc, _, err := r.commonConfigs.GetOrCreate(key, func(key int32) (*commonConfig, error) {
+		fs := oldConf.fs
+		configs, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(
+			allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{
+				Flags:       oldConf.cfg,
+				Fs:          fs.Source,
+				Filename:    r.cfgFile,
+				ConfigDir:   r.cfgDir,
+				Environment: r.environment,
+			},
+		)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
 
-	if errCount == 0 {
-		return nil
-	}
+		if !configs.Base.C.Clock.IsZero() {
+			// TODO(bep) find a better place for this.
+			htime.Clock = clock.Start(configs.Base.C.Clock)
+		}
+
+		return &commonConfig{
+			configs: configs,
+			cfg:     oldConf.cfg,
+			fs:      fs,
+		}, nil
 
-	m := make(map[string]any)
+	})
 
-	//xwm["Error"] = errors.New(cleanErrorLog(removeErrorPrefixFromLog(c.logger.Errors())))
-	m["Error"] = errors.New(cleanErrorLog(removeErrorPrefixFromLog(c.logger.Errors())))
-	m["Version"] = hugo.BuildVersionString()
-	ferrors := herrors.UnwrapFileErrorsWithErrorContext(c.buildErr)
-	m["Files"] = ferrors
+	return cc, err
 
-	return m
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) Set(key string, value any) {
-	if c.configured {
-		panic("commandeer cannot be changed")
+func (r *rootCommand) ConfigFromProvider(key int32, cfg config.Provider) (*commonConfig, error) {
+	if cfg == nil {
+		panic("cfg must be set")
 	}
-	c.Cfg.Set(key, value)
-}
+	cc, _, err := r.commonConfigs.GetOrCreate(key, func(key int32) (*commonConfig, error) {
+		var dir string
+		if r.source != "" {
+			dir, _ = filepath.Abs(r.source)
+		} else {
+			dir, _ = os.Getwd()
+		}
 
-func (c *commandeer) initFs(fs *hugofs.Fs) error {
-	c.publishDirFs = fs.PublishDir
-	c.publishDirStaticFs = fs.PublishDirStatic
-	c.publishDirServerFs = fs.PublishDirServer
-	c.DepsCfg.Fs = fs
+		if cfg == nil {
+			cfg = config.New()
+		}
+		if !cfg.IsSet("publishDir") {
+			cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+		}
+		if !cfg.IsSet("renderToDisk") {
+			cfg.Set("renderToDisk", true)
+		}
+		if !cfg.IsSet("workingDir") {
+			cfg.Set("workingDir", dir)
+		}
+		cfg.Set("publishDirStatic", cfg.Get("publishDir"))
+		cfg.Set("publishDirDynamic", cfg.Get("publishDir"))
 
-	return nil
-}
+		renderStaticToDisk := cfg.GetBool("renderStaticToDisk")
 
-func (c *commandeer) initClock(loc *time.Location) error {
-	bt := c.Cfg.GetString("clock")
-	if bt == "" {
-		return nil
-	}
+		sourceFs := hugofs.Os
+		var desinationFs afero.Fs
+		if cfg.GetBool("renderToDisk") {
+			desinationFs = hugofs.Os
+		} else {
+			desinationFs = afero.NewMemMapFs()
+			if renderStaticToDisk {
+				// Hybrid, render dynamic content to Root.
+				cfg.Set("publishDirDynamic", "/")
+			} else {
+				// Rendering to memoryFS, publish to Root regardless of publishDir.
+				cfg.Set("publishDirDynamic", "/")
+				cfg.Set("publishDirStatic", "/")
+			}
+		}
 
-	t, err := cast.StringToDateInDefaultLocation(bt, loc)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf(`failed to parse "clock" flag: %s`, err)
-	}
+		fs := hugofs.NewFromSourceAndDestination(sourceFs, desinationFs, cfg)
+
+		if renderStaticToDisk {
+			dynamicFs := fs.PublishDir
+			publishDirStatic := cfg.GetString("publishDirStatic")
+			workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
+			absPublishDirStatic := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDirStatic)
+			staticFs := afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewOsFs(), absPublishDirStatic)
+
+			// Serve from both the static and dynamic fs,
+			// the first will take priority.
+			// THis is a read-only filesystem,
+			// we do all the writes to
+			// fs.Destination and fs.DestinationStatic.
+			fs.PublishDirServer = overlayfs.New(
+				overlayfs.Options{
+					Fss: []afero.Fs{
+						dynamicFs,
+						staticFs,
+					},
+				},
+			)
+			fs.PublishDirStatic = staticFs
 
-	htime.Clock = clock.Start(t)
-	return nil
-}
+		}
 
-func newCommandeer(mustHaveConfigFile, failOnInitErr, running bool, h *hugoBuilderCommon, f flagsToConfigHandler, cfgInit func(c *commandeer) error, subCmdVs ...*cobra.Command) (*commandeer, error) {
-	var rebuildDebouncer func(f func())
-	if running {
-		// The time value used is tested with mass content replacements in a fairly big Hugo site.
-		// It is better to wait for some seconds in those cases rather than get flooded
-		// with rebuilds.
-		rebuildDebouncer = debounce.New(4 * time.Second)
-	}
+		configs, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(
+			allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{
+				Flags:       cfg,
+				Fs:          fs.Source,
+				Filename:    r.cfgFile,
+				ConfigDir:   r.cfgDir,
+				Environment: r.environment,
+			},
+		)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
 
-	out := io.Discard
-	if !h.quiet {
-		out = os.Stdout
-	}
+		base := configs.Base
 
-	c := &commandeer{
-		h:                   h,
-		ftch:                f,
-		commandeerHugoState: newCommandeerHugoState(),
-		cfgInit:             cfgInit,
-		visitedURLs:         types.NewEvictingStringQueue(10),
-		debounce:            rebuildDebouncer,
-		fullRebuildSem:      semaphore.NewWeighted(1),
-
-		// Init state
-		mustHaveConfigFile: mustHaveConfigFile,
-		failOnInitErr:      failOnInitErr,
-		running:            running,
-
-		// This will be replaced later, but we need something to log to before the configuration is read.
-		logger: loggers.NewLogger(jww.LevelWarn, jww.LevelError, out, io.Discard, running),
-	}
+		if !base.C.Clock.IsZero() {
+			// TODO(bep) find a better place for this.
+			htime.Clock = clock.Start(configs.Base.C.Clock)
+		}
 
-	return c, c.loadConfig()
-}
+		if base.LogPathWarnings {
+			// Note that we only care about the "dynamic creates" here,
+			// so skip the static fs.
+			fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(fs.PublishDir)
+		}
+
+		commonConfig := &commonConfig{
+			configs: configs,
+			cfg:     cfg,
+			fs:      fs,
+		}
+
+		return commonConfig, nil
+	})
 
-type fileChangeDetector struct {
-	sync.Mutex
-	current map[string]string
-	prev    map[string]string
+	return cc, err
 
-	irrelevantRe *regexp.Regexp
 }
 
-func (f *fileChangeDetector) OnFileClose(name, md5sum string) {
-	f.Lock()
-	defer f.Unlock()
-	f.current[name] = md5sum
+func (r *rootCommand) HugFromConfig(conf *commonConfig) (*hugolib.HugoSites, error) {
+	h, _, err := r.hugoSites.GetOrCreate(r.configVersionID.Load(), func(key int32) (*hugolib.HugoSites, error) {
+		conf.mu.Lock()
+		defer conf.mu.Unlock()
+		depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Configs: conf.configs, Fs: conf.fs, Logger: r.logger}
+		return hugolib.NewHugoSites(depsCfg)
+	})
+	return h, err
 }
 
-func (f *fileChangeDetector) changed() []string {
-	if f == nil {
-		return nil
-	}
-	f.Lock()
-	defer f.Unlock()
-	var c []string
-	for k, v := range f.current {
-		vv, found := f.prev[k]
-		if !found || v != vv {
-			c = append(c, k)
+func (r *rootCommand) Hugo(cfg config.Provider) (*hugolib.HugoSites, error) {
+	h, _, err := r.hugoSites.GetOrCreate(r.configVersionID.Load(), func(key int32) (*hugolib.HugoSites, error) {
+		conf, err := r.ConfigFromProvider(key, cfg)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
 		}
-	}
-
-	return f.filterIrrelevant(c)
+		depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Configs: conf.configs, Fs: conf.fs, Logger: r.logger}
+		return hugolib.NewHugoSites(depsCfg)
+	})
+	return h, err
 }
 
-func (f *fileChangeDetector) filterIrrelevant(in []string) []string {
-	var filtered []string
-	for _, v := range in {
-		if !f.irrelevantRe.MatchString(v) {
-			filtered = append(filtered, v)
-		}
-	}
-	return filtered
+func (r *rootCommand) Name() string {
+	return "hugo"
 }
 
-func (f *fileChangeDetector) PrepareNew() {
-	if f == nil {
-		return
+func (r *rootCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	if !r.buildWatch {
+		defer r.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Total")
 	}
 
-	f.Lock()
-	defer f.Unlock()
+	b := newHugoBuilder(r, nil)
 
-	if f.current == nil {
-		f.current = make(map[string]string)
-		f.prev = make(map[string]string)
-		return
+	if err := b.loadConfig(cd, true); err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
 
-	f.prev = make(map[string]string)
-	for k, v := range f.current {
-		f.prev[k] = v
+	err := func() error {
+		if r.buildWatch {
+			defer r.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Built")
+		}
+		err := b.build()
+		if err != nil {
+			r.Println("Error:", err.Error())
+		}
+		return err
+	}()
+
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
-	f.current = make(map[string]string)
-}
 
-func (c *commandeer) loadConfig() error {
-	if c.DepsCfg == nil {
-		c.DepsCfg = &deps.DepsCfg{}
+	if !r.buildWatch {
+		// Done.
+		return nil
 	}
 
-	if c.logger != nil {
-		// Truncate the error log if this is a reload.
-		c.logger.Reset()
+	watchDirs, err := b.getDirList()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
 
-	cfg := c.DepsCfg
-	c.configured = false
-	cfg.Running = c.running
-	loggers.PanicOnWarning.Store(c.h.panicOnWarning)
+	watchGroups := helpers.ExtractAndGroupRootPaths(watchDirs)
 
-	var dir string
-	if c.h.source != "" {
-		dir, _ = filepath.Abs(c.h.source)
-	} else {
-		dir, _ = os.Getwd()
+	for _, group := range watchGroups {
+		r.Printf("Watching for changes in %s\n", group)
 	}
-
-	var sourceFs afero.Fs = hugofs.Os
-	if c.DepsCfg.Fs != nil {
-		sourceFs = c.DepsCfg.Fs.Source
+	watcher, err := b.newWatcher(r.poll, watchDirs...)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
 
-	environment := c.h.getEnvironment(c.running)
+	defer watcher.Close()
 
-	doWithConfig := func(cfg config.Provider) error {
-		if c.ftch != nil {
-			c.ftch.flagsToConfig(cfg)
-		}
+	r.Println("Press Ctrl+C to stop")
 
-		cfg.Set("workingDir", dir)
-		cfg.Set("environment", environment)
-		return nil
-	}
+	sigs := make(chan os.Signal, 1)
+	signal.Notify(sigs, syscall.SIGINT, syscall.SIGTERM)
 
-	cfgSetAndInit := func(cfg config.Provider) error {
-		c.Cfg = cfg
-		if c.cfgInit == nil {
-			return nil
-		}
-		err := c.cfgInit(c)
-		return err
-	}
+	<-sigs
 
-	configPath := c.h.source
-	if configPath == "" {
-		configPath = dir
-	}
-	config, configFiles, err := hugolib.LoadConfig(
-		hugolib.ConfigSourceDescriptor{
-			Fs:           sourceFs,
-			Logger:       c.logger,
-			Path:         configPath,
-			WorkingDir:   dir,
-			Filename:     c.h.cfgFile,
-			AbsConfigDir: c.h.getConfigDir(dir),
-			Environment:  environment,
-		},
-		cfgSetAndInit,
-		doWithConfig)
+	return nil
+}
 
-	if err != nil {
-		// We should improve the error handling here,
-		// but with hugo mod init and similar there is a chicken and egg situation
-		// with modules already configured in config.toml, so ignore those errors.
-		if c.mustHaveConfigFile || (c.failOnInitErr && !moduleNotFoundRe.MatchString(err.Error())) {
-			return err
-		} else {
-			// Just make it a warning.
-			c.logger.Warnln(err)
+func (r *rootCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	r.Out = os.Stdout
+	if r.quiet {
+		r.Out = io.Discard
+	}
+	r.Printf = func(format string, v ...interface{}) {
+		if !r.quiet {
+			fmt.Fprintf(r.Out, format, v...)
 		}
-	} else if c.mustHaveConfigFile && len(configFiles) == 0 {
-		return hugolib.ErrNoConfigFile
 	}
-
-	c.configFiles = configFiles
-
-	var ok bool
-	loc := time.Local
-	c.languages, ok = c.Cfg.Get("languagesSorted").(langs.Languages)
-	if ok {
-		loc = langs.GetLocation(c.languages[0])
+	r.Println = func(a ...interface{}) {
+		if !r.quiet {
+			fmt.Fprintln(r.Out, a...)
+		}
 	}
-
-	err = c.initClock(loc)
+	_, running := runner.Command.(*serverCommand)
+	var err error
+	r.logger, err = r.createLogger(running)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	// Set some commonly used flags
-	c.doLiveReload = c.running && !c.Cfg.GetBool("disableLiveReload")
-	c.fastRenderMode = c.running && !c.Cfg.GetBool("disableFastRender")
-	c.showErrorInBrowser = c.doLiveReload && !c.Cfg.GetBool("disableBrowserError")
+	loggers.PanicOnWarning.Store(r.panicOnWarning)
+	r.commonConfigs = lazycache.New[int32, *commonConfig](lazycache.Options{MaxEntries: 5})
+	r.hugoSites = lazycache.New[int32, *hugolib.HugoSites](lazycache.Options{MaxEntries: 5})
 
-	// This is potentially double work, but we need to do this one more time now
-	// that all the languages have been configured.
-	if c.cfgInit != nil {
-		if err := c.cfgInit(c); err != nil {
-			return err
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (r *rootCommand) createLogger(running bool) (loggers.Logger, error) {
+	var (
+		logHandle       = io.Discard
+		logThreshold    = jww.LevelWarn
+		outHandle       = r.Out
+		stdoutThreshold = jww.LevelWarn
+	)
+
+	if r.verboseLog || r.logging || (r.logFile != "") {
+		var err error
+		if r.logFile != "" {
+			logHandle, err = os.OpenFile(r.logFile, os.O_RDWR|os.O_APPEND|os.O_CREATE, 0666)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, fmt.Errorf("Failed to open log file %q: %s", r.logFile, err)
+			}
+		} else {
+			logHandle, err = os.CreateTemp("", "hugo")
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, err
+			}
 		}
+	} else if r.verbose {
+		stdoutThreshold = jww.LevelInfo
 	}
 
-	logger, err := c.createLogger(config)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
+	if r.debug {
+		stdoutThreshold = jww.LevelDebug
 	}
 
-	cfg.Logger = logger
-	c.logger = logger
-	c.serverConfig, err = hconfig.DecodeServer(cfg.Cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
+	if r.verboseLog {
+		logThreshold = jww.LevelInfo
+		if r.debug {
+			logThreshold = jww.LevelDebug
+		}
 	}
 
-	createMemFs := config.GetBool("renderToMemory")
-	c.renderStaticToDisk = config.GetBool("renderStaticToDisk")
-	// TODO(bep) we/I really need to look at the config set up, but to prevent changing too much
-	// we store away the original.
-	config.Set("publishDirOrig", config.GetString("publishDir"))
-
-	if createMemFs {
-		// Rendering to memoryFS, publish to Root regardless of publishDir.
-		config.Set("publishDir", "/")
-		config.Set("publishDirStatic", "/")
-	} else if c.renderStaticToDisk {
-		// Hybrid, render dynamic content to Root.
-		config.Set("publishDirStatic", config.Get("publishDir"))
-		config.Set("publishDir", "/")
-
-	}
+	loggers.InitGlobalLogger(stdoutThreshold, logThreshold, outHandle, logHandle)
+	helpers.InitLoggers()
+	return loggers.NewLogger(stdoutThreshold, logThreshold, outHandle, logHandle, running), nil
+}
 
-	c.fsCreate.Do(func() {
-		// Assume both source and destination are using same filesystem.
-		fs := hugofs.NewFromSourceAndDestination(sourceFs, sourceFs, config)
+func (r *rootCommand) Reset() {
+	r.logger.Reset()
+}
 
-		if c.publishDirFs != nil {
-			// Need to reuse the destination on server rebuilds.
-			fs.PublishDir = c.publishDirFs
-			fs.PublishDirStatic = c.publishDirStaticFs
-			fs.PublishDirServer = c.publishDirServerFs
-		} else {
-			if c.renderStaticToDisk {
-				publishDirStatic := config.GetString("publishDirStatic")
-				workingDir := config.GetString("workingDir")
-				absPublishDirStatic := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDirStatic)
-
-				fs = hugofs.NewFromSourceAndDestination(sourceFs, afero.NewMemMapFs(), config)
-				// Writes the dynamic output to memory,
-				// while serve others directly from /public on disk.
-				dynamicFs := fs.PublishDir
-				staticFs := afero.NewBasePathFs(afero.NewOsFs(), absPublishDirStatic)
-
-				// Serve from both the static and dynamic fs,
-				// the first will take priority.
-				// THis is a read-only filesystem,
-				// we do all the writes to
-				// fs.Destination and fs.DestinationStatic.
-				fs.PublishDirServer = overlayfs.New(
-					overlayfs.Options{
-						Fss: []afero.Fs{
-							dynamicFs,
-							staticFs,
-						},
-					},
-				)
-				fs.PublishDirStatic = staticFs
-			} else if createMemFs {
-				// Hugo writes the output to memory instead of the disk.
-				fs = hugofs.NewFromSourceAndDestination(sourceFs, afero.NewMemMapFs(), config)
-			}
-		}
+// IsTestRun reports whether the command is running as a test.
+func (r *rootCommand) IsTestRun() bool {
+	return os.Getenv("HUGO_TESTRUN") != ""
+}
 
-		if c.fastRenderMode {
-			// For now, fast render mode only. It should, however, be fast enough
-			// for the full variant, too.
-			changeDetector := &fileChangeDetector{
-				// We use this detector to decide to do a Hot reload of a single path or not.
-				// We need to filter out source maps and possibly some other to be able
-				// to make that decision.
-				irrelevantRe: regexp.MustCompile(`\.map$`),
-			}
+func (r *rootCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Use = "hugo [flags]"
+	cmd.Short = "hugo builds your site"
+	cmd.Long = `hugo is the main command, used to build your Hugo site.
+
+Hugo is a Fast and Flexible Static Site Generator
+built with love by spf13 and friends in Go.
+
+Complete documentation is available at https://gohugo.io/.`
+
+	// Configure persistent flags
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&r.source, "source", "s", "", "filesystem path to read files relative from")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("source", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&r.environment, "environment", "e", "", "build environment")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringP("themesDir", "", "", "filesystem path to themes directory")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringP("ignoreVendorPaths", "", "", "ignores any _vendor for module paths matching the given Glob pattern")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().String("clock", "", "set the clock used by Hugo, e.g. --clock 2021-11-06T22:30:00.00+09:00")
+
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&r.cfgFile, "config", "", "config file (default is hugo.yaml|json|toml)")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&r.cfgDir, "configDir", "config", "config dir")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&r.quiet, "quiet", false, "build in quiet mode")
+
+	// Set bash-completion
+	_ = cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("config", cobra.BashCompFilenameExt, config.ValidConfigFileExtensions)
+
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&r.verbose, "verbose", "v", false, "verbose output")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&r.debug, "debug", "", false, "debug output")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&r.logging, "log", false, "enable Logging")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&r.logFile, "logFile", "", "log File path (if set, logging enabled automatically)")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&r.verboseLog, "verboseLog", false, "verbose logging")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&r.buildWatch, "watch", "w", false, "watch filesystem for changes and recreate as needed")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&r.renderToMemory, "renderToMemory", false, "render to memory (only useful for benchmark testing)")
+
+	// Set bash-completion
+	_ = cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("logFile", cobra.BashCompFilenameExt, []string{})
+
+	// Configure local flags
+	cmd.Flags().Bool("cleanDestinationDir", false, "remove files from destination not found in static directories")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("buildDrafts", "D", false, "include content marked as draft")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("buildFuture", "F", false, "include content with publishdate in the future")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("buildExpired", "E", false, "include expired content")
+	cmd.Flags().StringP("contentDir", "c", "", "filesystem path to content directory")
+	cmd.Flags().StringP("layoutDir", "l", "", "filesystem path to layout directory")
+	cmd.Flags().StringP("cacheDir", "", "", "filesystem path to cache directory. Defaults: $TMPDIR/hugo_cache/")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("ignoreCache", "", false, "ignores the cache directory")
+	cmd.Flags().StringP("destination", "d", "", "filesystem path to write files to")
+	cmd.Flags().StringSliceP("theme", "t", []string{}, "themes to use (located in /themes/THEMENAME/)")
+	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&r.baseURL, "baseURL", "b", "", "hostname (and path) to the root, e.g. https://spf13.com/")
+	cmd.Flags().Bool("enableGitInfo", false, "add Git revision, date, author, and CODEOWNERS info to the pages")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&r.gc, "gc", false, "enable to run some cleanup tasks (remove unused cache files) after the build")
+	cmd.Flags().StringVar(&r.poll, "poll", "", "set this to a poll interval, e.g --poll 700ms, to use a poll based approach to watch for file system changes")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&r.panicOnWarning, "panicOnWarning", false, "panic on first WARNING log")
+	cmd.Flags().Bool("templateMetrics", false, "display metrics about template executions")
+	cmd.Flags().Bool("templateMetricsHints", false, "calculate some improvement hints when combined with --templateMetrics")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&r.forceSyncStatic, "forceSyncStatic", false, "copy all files when static is changed.")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("noTimes", "", false, "don't sync modification time of files")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("noChmod", "", false, "don't sync permission mode of files")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("noBuildLock", "", false, "don't create .hugo_build.lock file")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("printI18nWarnings", "", false, "print missing translations")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("printPathWarnings", "", false, "print warnings on duplicate target paths etc.")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolP("printUnusedTemplates", "", false, "print warnings on unused templates.")
+	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&r.cpuprofile, "profile-cpu", "", "", "write cpu profile to `file`")
+	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&r.memprofile, "profile-mem", "", "", "write memory profile to `file`")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&r.printm, "printMemoryUsage", "", false, "print memory usage to screen at intervals")
+	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&r.mutexprofile, "profile-mutex", "", "", "write Mutex profile to `file`")
+	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&r.traceprofile, "trace", "", "", "write trace to `file` (not useful in general)")
+
+	// Hide these for now.
+	cmd.Flags().MarkHidden("profile-cpu")
+	cmd.Flags().MarkHidden("profile-mem")
+	cmd.Flags().MarkHidden("profile-mutex")
+
+	cmd.Flags().StringSlice("disableKinds", []string{}, "disable different kind of pages (home, RSS etc.)")
+
+	cmd.Flags().Bool("minify", false, "minify any supported output format (HTML, XML etc.)")
+
+	// Set bash-completion.
+	// Each flag must first be defined before using the SetAnnotation() call.
+	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("source", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
+	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("cacheDir", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
+	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("destination", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
+	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("theme", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{"themes"})
 
-			changeDetector.PrepareNew()
-			fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewHashingFs(fs.PublishDir, changeDetector)
-			fs.PublishDirStatic = hugofs.NewHashingFs(fs.PublishDirStatic, changeDetector)
-			c.changeDetector = changeDetector
-		}
+	return nil
+}
 
-		if c.Cfg.GetBool("logPathWarnings") {
-			// Note that we only care about the "dynamic creates" here,
-			// so skip the static fs.
-			fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(fs.PublishDir)
-		}
+func (r *rootCommand) timeTrack(start time.Time, name string) {
+	elapsed := time.Since(start)
+	r.Printf("%s in %v ms\n", name, int(1000*elapsed.Seconds()))
+}
 
-		// To debug hard-to-find path issues.
-		// fs.Destination = hugofs.NewStacktracerFs(fs.Destination, `fr/fr`)
+type simpleCommand struct {
+	use   string
+	name  string
+	short string
+	long  string
+	run   func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, rootCmd *rootCommand, args []string) error
+	withc func(cmd *cobra.Command)
+	initc func(cd *simplecobra.Commandeer) error
 
-		err = c.initFs(fs)
-		if err != nil {
-			close(c.created)
-			return
-		}
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
 
-		var h *hugolib.HugoSites
+	rootCmd *rootCommand
+}
 
-		var createErr error
-		h, createErr = hugolib.NewHugoSites(*c.DepsCfg)
-		if h == nil || c.failOnInitErr {
-			err = createErr
-		}
+func (c *simpleCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
 
-		c.hugoSites = h
-		// TODO(bep) improve.
-		if c.buildLock == nil && h != nil {
-			c.buildLock = h.LockBuild
-		}
-		close(c.created)
-	})
+func (c *simpleCommand) Name() string {
+	return c.name
+}
 
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
+func (c *simpleCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	if c.run == nil {
+		return nil
 	}
+	return c.run(ctx, cd, c.rootCmd, args)
+}
 
-	cacheDir, err := helpers.GetCacheDir(sourceFs, config)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
+func (c *simpleCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = c.short
+	cmd.Long = c.long
+	if c.use != "" {
+		cmd.Use = c.use
+	}
+	if c.withc != nil {
+		c.withc(cmd)
 	}
-	config.Set("cacheDir", cacheDir)
+	return nil
+}
 
+func (c *simpleCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.rootCmd = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	if c.initc != nil {
+		return c.initc(cd)
+	}
 	return nil
 }
+
+func mapLegacyArgs(args []string) []string {
+	if len(args) > 1 && args[0] == "new" && !hstrings.EqualAny(args[1], "site", "theme", "content") {
+		// Insert "content" as the second argument
+		args = append(args[:1], append([]string{"content"}, args[1:]...)...)
+	}
+	return args
+}
diff --git a/commands/commands.go b/commands/commands.go
index 5b47ad82e..9d707b841 100644
--- a/commands/commands.go
+++ b/commands/commands.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,331 +14,28 @@
 package commands
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
-	"os"
-	"time"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-	hpaths "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
 )
 
-type commandsBuilder struct {
-	hugoBuilderCommon
-
-	commands []cmder
-}
-
-func newCommandsBuilder() *commandsBuilder {
-	return &commandsBuilder{}
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) addCommands(commands ...cmder) *commandsBuilder {
-	b.commands = append(b.commands, commands...)
-	return b
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) addAll() *commandsBuilder {
-	b.addCommands(
-		b.newServerCmd(),
-		newVersionCmd(),
-		newEnvCmd(),
-		b.newConfigCmd(),
-		b.newDeployCmd(),
-		b.newConvertCmd(),
-		b.newNewCmd(),
-		b.newListCmd(),
-		newImportCmd(),
-		newGenCmd(),
-		createReleaser(),
-		b.newModCmd(),
-	)
-
-	return b
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) build() *hugoCmd {
-	h := b.newHugoCmd()
-	addCommands(h.getCommand(), b.commands...)
-	return h
-}
-
-func addCommands(root *cobra.Command, commands ...cmder) {
-	for _, command := range commands {
-		cmd := command.getCommand()
-		if cmd == nil {
-			continue
-		}
-		root.AddCommand(cmd)
-	}
-}
-
-type baseCmd struct {
-	cmd *cobra.Command
-}
-
-var _ commandsBuilderGetter = (*baseBuilderCmd)(nil)
-
-// Used in tests.
-type commandsBuilderGetter interface {
-	getCommandsBuilder() *commandsBuilder
-}
-
-type baseBuilderCmd struct {
-	*baseCmd
-	*commandsBuilder
-}
-
-func (b *baseBuilderCmd) getCommandsBuilder() *commandsBuilder {
-	return b.commandsBuilder
-}
-
-func (c *baseCmd) getCommand() *cobra.Command {
-	return c.cmd
-}
-
-func newBaseCmd(cmd *cobra.Command) *baseCmd {
-	return &baseCmd{cmd: cmd}
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newBuilderCmd(cmd *cobra.Command) *baseBuilderCmd {
-	bcmd := &baseBuilderCmd{commandsBuilder: b, baseCmd: &baseCmd{cmd: cmd}}
-	bcmd.hugoBuilderCommon.handleFlags(cmd)
-	return bcmd
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd *cobra.Command) *baseBuilderCmd {
-	bcmd := &baseBuilderCmd{commandsBuilder: b, baseCmd: &baseCmd{cmd: cmd}}
-	bcmd.hugoBuilderCommon.handleCommonBuilderFlags(cmd)
-	return bcmd
-}
-
-func (c *baseCmd) flagsToConfig(cfg config.Provider) {
-	initializeFlags(c.cmd, cfg)
-}
-
-type hugoCmd struct {
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-
-	// Need to get the sites once built.
-	c *commandeer
-}
-
-var _ cmder = (*nilCommand)(nil)
-
-type nilCommand struct{}
-
-func (c *nilCommand) getCommand() *cobra.Command {
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (c *nilCommand) flagsToConfig(cfg config.Provider) {
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newHugoCmd() *hugoCmd {
-	cc := &hugoCmd{}
-
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderCmd(&cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "hugo",
-		Short: "hugo builds your site",
-		Long: `hugo is the main command, used to build your Hugo site.
-
-Hugo is a Fast and Flexible Static Site Generator
-built with love by spf13 and friends in Go.
-
-Complete documentation is available at https://gohugo.io/.`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			defer cc.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Total")
-			cfgInit := func(c *commandeer) error {
-				if cc.buildWatch {
-					c.Set("disableLiveReload", true)
-				}
-				return nil
-			}
-
-			// prevent cobra printing error so it can be handled here (before the timeTrack prints)
-			cmd.SilenceErrors = true
-
-			c, err := initializeConfig(true, true, cc.buildWatch, &cc.hugoBuilderCommon, cc, cfgInit)
-			if err != nil {
-				cmd.PrintErrln("Error:", err.Error())
-				return err
-			}
-			cc.c = c
-
-			err = c.build()
-			if err != nil {
-				cmd.PrintErrln("Error:", err.Error())
-			}
-			return err
+// newExec wires up all of Hugo's CLI.
+func newExec() (*simplecobra.Exec, error) {
+	rootCmd := &rootCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			newVersionCmd(),
+			newEnvCommand(),
+			newServerCommand(),
+			newDeployCommand(),
+			newConfigCommand(),
+			newNewCommand(),
+			newConvertCommand(),
+			newImportCommand(),
+			newListCommand(),
+			newModCommands(),
+			newGenCommand(),
+			newReleaseCommand(),
 		},
-	})
-
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&cc.cfgFile, "config", "", "config file (default is hugo.yaml|json|toml)")
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&cc.cfgDir, "configDir", "config", "config dir")
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&cc.quiet, "quiet", false, "build in quiet mode")
-
-	// Set bash-completion
-	_ = cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("config", cobra.BashCompFilenameExt, config.ValidConfigFileExtensions)
-
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&cc.verbose, "verbose", "v", false, "verbose output")
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&cc.debug, "debug", "", false, "debug output")
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&cc.logging, "log", false, "enable Logging")
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&cc.logFile, "logFile", "", "log File path (if set, logging enabled automatically)")
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&cc.verboseLog, "verboseLog", false, "verbose logging")
-
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&cc.buildWatch, "watch", "w", false, "watch filesystem for changes and recreate as needed")
-
-	cc.cmd.Flags().Bool("renderToMemory", false, "render to memory (only useful for benchmark testing)")
-
-	// Set bash-completion
-	_ = cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("logFile", cobra.BashCompFilenameExt, []string{})
-
-	cc.cmd.SetGlobalNormalizationFunc(helpers.NormalizeHugoFlags)
-	cc.cmd.SilenceUsage = true
-
-	return cc
-}
-
-type hugoBuilderCommon struct {
-	source      string
-	baseURL     string
-	environment string
-
-	buildWatch     bool
-	panicOnWarning bool
-	poll           string
-	clock          string
-
-	gc bool
-
-	// Profile flags (for debugging of performance problems)
-	cpuprofile   string
-	memprofile   string
-	mutexprofile string
-	traceprofile string
-	printm       bool
-
-	// TODO(bep) var vs string
-	logging    bool
-	verbose    bool
-	verboseLog bool
-	debug      bool
-	quiet      bool
-
-	cfgFile string
-	cfgDir  string
-	logFile string
-}
-
-func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) timeTrack(start time.Time, name string) {
-	if cc.quiet {
-		return
-	}
-	elapsed := time.Since(start)
-	fmt.Printf("%s in %v ms\n", name, int(1000*elapsed.Seconds()))
-}
-
-func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) getConfigDir(baseDir string) string {
-	if cc.cfgDir != "" {
-		return hpaths.AbsPathify(baseDir, cc.cfgDir)
 	}
 
-	if v, found := os.LookupEnv("HUGO_CONFIGDIR"); found {
-		return hpaths.AbsPathify(baseDir, v)
-	}
-
-	return hpaths.AbsPathify(baseDir, "config")
-}
-
-func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) getEnvironment(isServer bool) string {
-	if cc.environment != "" {
-		return cc.environment
-	}
-
-	if v, found := os.LookupEnv("HUGO_ENVIRONMENT"); found {
-		return v
-	}
-
-	//  Used by Netlify and Forestry
-	if v, found := os.LookupEnv("HUGO_ENV"); found {
-		return v
-	}
+	return simplecobra.New(rootCmd)
 
-	if isServer {
-		return hugo.EnvironmentDevelopment
-	}
-
-	return hugo.EnvironmentProduction
-}
-
-func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) handleCommonBuilderFlags(cmd *cobra.Command) {
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&cc.source, "source", "s", "", "filesystem path to read files relative from")
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("source", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&cc.environment, "environment", "e", "", "build environment")
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringP("themesDir", "", "", "filesystem path to themes directory")
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringP("ignoreVendorPaths", "", "", "ignores any _vendor for module paths matching the given Glob pattern")
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&cc.clock, "clock", "", "set the clock used by Hugo, e.g. --clock 2021-11-06T22:30:00.00+09:00")
-}
-
-func (cc *hugoBuilderCommon) handleFlags(cmd *cobra.Command) {
-	cc.handleCommonBuilderFlags(cmd)
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("cleanDestinationDir", false, "remove files from destination not found in static directories")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("buildDrafts", "D", false, "include content marked as draft")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("buildFuture", "F", false, "include content with publishdate in the future")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("buildExpired", "E", false, "include expired content")
-	cmd.Flags().StringP("contentDir", "c", "", "filesystem path to content directory")
-	cmd.Flags().StringP("layoutDir", "l", "", "filesystem path to layout directory")
-	cmd.Flags().StringP("cacheDir", "", "", "filesystem path to cache directory. Defaults: $TMPDIR/hugo_cache/")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("ignoreCache", "", false, "ignores the cache directory")
-	cmd.Flags().StringP("destination", "d", "", "filesystem path to write files to")
-	cmd.Flags().StringSliceP("theme", "t", []string{}, "themes to use (located in /themes/THEMENAME/)")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.baseURL, "baseURL", "b", "", "hostname (and path) to the root, e.g. https://spf13.com/")
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("enableGitInfo", false, "add Git revision, date, author, and CODEOWNERS info to the pages")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.gc, "gc", false, "enable to run some cleanup tasks (remove unused cache files) after the build")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVar(&cc.poll, "poll", "", "set this to a poll interval, e.g --poll 700ms, to use a poll based approach to watch for file system changes")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.panicOnWarning, "panicOnWarning", false, "panic on first WARNING log")
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("templateMetrics", false, "display metrics about template executions")
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("templateMetricsHints", false, "calculate some improvement hints when combined with --templateMetrics")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("forceSyncStatic", "", false, "copy all files when static is changed.")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("noTimes", "", false, "don't sync modification time of files")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("noChmod", "", false, "don't sync permission mode of files")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("noBuildLock", "", false, "don't create .hugo_build.lock file")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("printI18nWarnings", "", false, "print missing translations")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("printPathWarnings", "", false, "print warnings on duplicate target paths etc.")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolP("printUnusedTemplates", "", false, "print warnings on unused templates.")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.cpuprofile, "profile-cpu", "", "", "write cpu profile to `file`")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.memprofile, "profile-mem", "", "", "write memory profile to `file`")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&cc.printm, "printMemoryUsage", "", false, "print memory usage to screen at intervals")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.mutexprofile, "profile-mutex", "", "", "write Mutex profile to `file`")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.traceprofile, "trace", "", "", "write trace to `file` (not useful in general)")
-
-	// Hide these for now.
-	cmd.Flags().MarkHidden("profile-cpu")
-	cmd.Flags().MarkHidden("profile-mem")
-	cmd.Flags().MarkHidden("profile-mutex")
-
-	cmd.Flags().StringSlice("disableKinds", []string{}, "disable different kind of pages (home, RSS etc.)")
-
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("minify", false, "minify any supported output format (HTML, XML etc.)")
-
-	// Set bash-completion.
-	// Each flag must first be defined before using the SetAnnotation() call.
-	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("source", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
-	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("cacheDir", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
-	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("destination", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
-	_ = cmd.Flags().SetAnnotation("theme", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{"themes"})
-}
-
-func checkErr(logger loggers.Logger, err error, s ...string) {
-	if err == nil {
-		return
-	}
-	for _, message := range s {
-		logger.Errorln(message)
-	}
-	logger.Errorln(err)
 }
diff --git a/commands/commands_test.go b/commands/commands_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 35621854f..000000000
--- a/commands/commands_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,411 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"fmt"
-	"os"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"testing"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-)
-
-func TestExecute(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	createSite := func(c *qt.C) string {
-		dir := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
-		return dir
-	}
-
-	c.Run("hugo", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		resp := Execute([]string{"-s=" + dir})
-		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
-		result := resp.Result
-		c.Assert(len(result.Sites) == 1, qt.Equals, true)
-		c.Assert(len(result.Sites[0].RegularPages()) == 2, qt.Equals, true)
-		c.Assert(result.Sites[0].Info.Params()["myparam"], qt.Equals, "paramproduction")
-	})
-
-	c.Run("hugo, set environment", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		resp := Execute([]string{"-s=" + dir, "-e=staging"})
-		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
-		result := resp.Result
-		c.Assert(result.Sites[0].Info.Params()["myparam"], qt.Equals, "paramstaging")
-	})
-
-	c.Run("convert toJSON", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		output := filepath.Join(dir, "myjson")
-		resp := Execute([]string{"convert", "toJSON", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging", "-o=" + output})
-		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
-		converted := readFileFrom(c, filepath.Join(output, "content", "p1.md"))
-		c.Assert(converted, qt.Equals, "{\n   \"title\": \"P1\",\n   \"weight\": 1\n}\n\nContent\n\n", qt.Commentf(converted))
-	})
-
-	c.Run("config, set environment", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		out, err := captureStdout(func() error {
-			resp := Execute([]string{"config", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging"})
-			return resp.Err
-		})
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(out, qt.Contains, "params = map[myparam:paramstaging]", qt.Commentf(out))
-	})
-
-	c.Run("deploy, environment set", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		resp := Execute([]string{"deploy", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging", "--target=mydeployment", "--dryRun"})
-		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		c.Assert(resp.Err.Error(), qt.Contains, `no driver registered for "hugocloud"`)
-	})
-
-	c.Run("list", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		out, err := captureStdout(func() error {
-			resp := Execute([]string{"list", "all", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging"})
-			return resp.Err
-		})
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(out, qt.Contains, "p1.md")
-	})
-
-	c.Run("new theme", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		themesDir := filepath.Join(dir, "mythemes")
-		resp := Execute([]string{"new", "theme", "mytheme", "-s=" + dir, "-e=staging", "--themesDir=" + themesDir})
-		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
-		themeTOML := readFileFrom(c, filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "theme.toml"))
-		c.Assert(themeTOML, qt.Contains, "name = \"Mytheme\"")
-	})
-
-	c.Run("new site", func(c *qt.C) {
-		dir := createSite(c)
-		siteDir := filepath.Join(dir, "mysite")
-		resp := Execute([]string{"new", "site", siteDir, "-e=staging"})
-		c.Assert(resp.Err, qt.IsNil)
-		config := readFileFrom(c, filepath.Join(siteDir, "config.toml"))
-		c.Assert(config, qt.Contains, "baseURL = 'http://example.org/'")
-		checkNewSiteInited(c, siteDir)
-	})
-}
-
-func checkNewSiteInited(c *qt.C, basepath string) {
-	paths := []string{
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "archetypes"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "assets"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "content"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "data"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "layouts"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "static"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "themes"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "config.toml"),
-	}
-
-	for _, path := range paths {
-		_, err := os.Stat(path)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	}
-}
-
-func readFileFrom(c *qt.C, filename string) string {
-	c.Helper()
-	filename = filepath.Clean(filename)
-	b, err := afero.ReadFile(hugofs.Os, filename)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	return string(b)
-}
-
-func TestFlags(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	noOpRunE := func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	tests := []struct {
-		name  string
-		args  []string
-		check func(c *qt.C, cmd *serverCmd)
-	}{
-		{
-			// https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/7642
-			name: "ignoreVendorPaths",
-			args: []string{"server", "--ignoreVendorPaths=github.com/**"},
-			check: func(c *qt.C, cmd *serverCmd) {
-				cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-				cmd.flagsToConfig(cfg)
-				c.Assert(cfg.Get("ignoreVendorPaths"), qt.Equals, "github.com/**")
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			name: "Persistent flags",
-			args: []string{
-				"server",
-				"--config=myconfig.toml",
-				"--configDir=myconfigdir",
-				"--contentDir=mycontent",
-				"--disableKinds=page,home",
-				"--environment=testing",
-				"--configDir=myconfigdir",
-				"--layoutDir=mylayouts",
-				"--theme=mytheme",
-				"--gc",
-				"--themesDir=mythemes",
-				"--cleanDestinationDir",
-				"--navigateToChanged",
-				"--disableLiveReload",
-				"--noHTTPCache",
-				"--printI18nWarnings",
-				"--destination=/tmp/mydestination",
-				"-b=https://example.com/b/",
-				"--port=1366",
-				"--renderToDisk",
-				"--source=mysource",
-				"--printPathWarnings",
-				"--printUnusedTemplates",
-			},
-			check: func(c *qt.C, sc *serverCmd) {
-				c.Assert(sc, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-				c.Assert(sc.navigateToChanged, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(sc.disableLiveReload, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(sc.noHTTPCache, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(sc.renderToDisk, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(sc.serverPort, qt.Equals, 1366)
-				c.Assert(sc.environment, qt.Equals, "testing")
-
-				cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-				sc.flagsToConfig(cfg)
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetString("publishDir"), qt.Equals, "/tmp/mydestination")
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetString("contentDir"), qt.Equals, "mycontent")
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetString("layoutDir"), qt.Equals, "mylayouts")
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetStringSlice("theme"), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"mytheme"})
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetString("themesDir"), qt.Equals, "mythemes")
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetString("baseURL"), qt.Equals, "https://example.com/b/")
-
-				c.Assert(cfg.Get("disableKinds"), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"page", "home"})
-
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetBool("gc"), qt.Equals, true)
-
-				// The flag is named printPathWarnings
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetBool("logPathWarnings"), qt.Equals, true)
-
-				// The flag is named printI18nWarnings
-				c.Assert(cfg.GetBool("logI18nWarnings"), qt.Equals, true)
-			},
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		c.Run(test.name, func(c *qt.C) {
-			b := newCommandsBuilder()
-			root := b.addAll().build()
-
-			for _, cmd := range b.commands {
-				if cmd.getCommand() == nil {
-					continue
-				}
-				// We are only interested in the flag handling here.
-				cmd.getCommand().RunE = noOpRunE
-			}
-			rootCmd := root.getCommand()
-			rootCmd.SetArgs(test.args)
-			c.Assert(rootCmd.Execute(), qt.IsNil)
-			test.check(c, b.commands[0].(*serverCmd))
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-func TestCommandsExecute(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	dir := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
-	dirOut := t.TempDir()
-
-	sourceFlag := fmt.Sprintf("-s=%s", dir)
-
-	tests := []struct {
-		commands           []string
-		flags              []string
-		expectErrToContain string
-	}{
-		// TODO(bep) permission issue on my OSX? "operation not permitted" {[]string{"check", "ulimit"}, nil, false},
-		{[]string{"env"}, nil, ""},
-		{[]string{"version"}, nil, ""},
-		// no args = hugo build
-		{nil, []string{sourceFlag}, ""},
-		{nil, []string{sourceFlag, "--renderToMemory"}, ""},
-		{[]string{"completion", "bash"}, nil, ""},
-		{[]string{"completion", "fish"}, nil, ""},
-		{[]string{"completion", "powershell"}, nil, ""},
-		{[]string{"completion", "zsh"}, nil, ""},
-		{[]string{"config"}, []string{sourceFlag}, ""},
-		{[]string{"convert", "toTOML"}, []string{sourceFlag, "-o=" + filepath.Join(dirOut, "toml")}, ""},
-		{[]string{"convert", "toYAML"}, []string{sourceFlag, "-o=" + filepath.Join(dirOut, "yaml")}, ""},
-		{[]string{"convert", "toJSON"}, []string{sourceFlag, "-o=" + filepath.Join(dirOut, "json")}, ""},
-		{[]string{"gen", "chromastyles"}, []string{"--style=manni"}, ""},
-		{[]string{"gen", "doc"}, []string{"--dir=" + filepath.Join(dirOut, "doc")}, ""},
-		{[]string{"gen", "man"}, []string{"--dir=" + filepath.Join(dirOut, "man")}, ""},
-		{[]string{"list", "drafts"}, []string{sourceFlag}, ""},
-		{[]string{"list", "expired"}, []string{sourceFlag}, ""},
-		{[]string{"list", "future"}, []string{sourceFlag}, ""},
-		{[]string{"new", "new-page.md"}, []string{sourceFlag}, ""},
-		{[]string{"new", "site", filepath.Join(dirOut, "new-site")}, nil, ""},
-		{[]string{"unknowncommand"}, nil, "unknown command"},
-		// TODO(bep) cli refactor fix https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/4450
-		//{[]string{"new", "theme", filepath.Join(dirOut, "new-theme")}, nil,false},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		name := "hugo"
-		if len(test.commands) > 0 {
-			name = test.commands[0]
-		}
-		c.Run(name, func(c *qt.C) {
-			b := newCommandsBuilder().addAll().build()
-			hugoCmd := b.getCommand()
-			test.flags = append(test.flags, "--quiet")
-			hugoCmd.SetArgs(append(test.commands, test.flags...))
-
-			// TODO(bep) capture output and add some simple asserts
-			// TODO(bep) misspelled subcommands does not return an error. We should investigate this
-			// but before that, check for "Error: unknown command".
-
-			_, err := hugoCmd.ExecuteC()
-			if test.expectErrToContain != "" {
-				c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-				c.Assert(err.Error(), qt.Contains, test.expectErrToContain)
-			} else {
-				c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			}
-
-			// Assert that we have not left any development debug artifacts in
-			// the code.
-			if b.c != nil {
-				_, ok := b.c.publishDirFs.(types.DevMarker)
-				c.Assert(ok, qt.Equals, false)
-			}
-		})
-
-	}
-}
-
-type testSiteConfig struct {
-	configTOML string
-	contentDir string
-}
-
-func createSimpleTestSite(t testing.TB, cfg testSiteConfig) string {
-	dir := t.TempDir()
-
-	cfgStr := `
-
-baseURL = "https://example.org"
-title = "Hugo Commands"
-
-
-`
-
-	contentDir := "content"
-
-	if cfg.configTOML != "" {
-		cfgStr = cfg.configTOML
-	}
-	if cfg.contentDir != "" {
-		contentDir = cfg.contentDir
-	}
-
-	os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(dir, "public"), 0777)
-
-	// Just the basic. These are for CLI tests, not site testing.
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config.toml"), cfgStr)
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "staging", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramstaging"`)
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "staging", "deployment.toml"), `
-[[targets]]
-name = "mydeployment"
-URL = "hugocloud://hugotestbucket"
-`)
-
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "testing", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramtesting"`)
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "config", "production", "params.toml"), `myparam="paramproduction"`)
-
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "static", "myfile.txt"), `Hello World!`)
-
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, contentDir, "p1.md"), `
----
-title: "P1"
-weight: 1
----
-
-Content
-
-`)
-
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, contentDir, "hügö.md"), `
----
-weight: 2
----
-
-This is hügö.
-
-`)
-
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `
-
-Single: {{ .Title }}|{{ .Content }}
-
-`)
-
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "layouts", "404.html"), `
-404: {{ .Title }}|Not Found.
-
-`)
-
-	writeFile(t, filepath.Join(dir, "layouts", "_default", "list.html"), `
-
-List: {{ .Title }}
-Environment: {{ hugo.Environment }}
-
-For issue 9788:
-{{ $foo :="abc" | resources.FromString "foo.css" | minify | resources.PostProcess }}
-PostProcess: {{ $foo.RelPermalink }}
-
-`)
-
-	return dir
-}
-
-func writeFile(t testing.TB, filename, content string) {
-	must(t, os.MkdirAll(filepath.Dir(filename), os.FileMode(0755)))
-	must(t, os.WriteFile(filename, []byte(content), os.FileMode(0755)))
-}
-
-func must(t testing.TB, err error) {
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-}
diff --git a/commands/config.go b/commands/config.go
index a5d8aab22..6f0a29b35 100644
--- a/commands/config.go
+++ b/commands/config.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -9,129 +9,93 @@
 // distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
 // WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.Print the version number of Hug
+// limitations under the License.
 
 package commands
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"encoding/json"
-	"fmt"
 	"os"
-	"reflect"
-	"regexp"
-	"sort"
-	"strings"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
-
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*configCmd)(nil)
+// newConfigCommand creates a new config command and its subcommands.
+func newConfigCommand() *configCommand {
+	return &configCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			&configMountsCommand{},
+		},
+	}
 
-type configCmd struct {
-	*baseBuilderCmd
 }
 
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newConfigCmd() *configCmd {
-	cc := &configCmd{}
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "config",
-		Short: "Print the site configuration",
-		Long:  `Print the site configuration, both default and custom settings.`,
-		RunE:  cc.printConfig,
-	}
+type configCommand struct {
+	r *rootCommand
 
-	printMountsCmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "mounts",
-		Short: "Print the configured file mounts",
-		RunE:  cc.printMounts,
-	}
-
-	cmd.AddCommand(printMountsCmd)
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+}
 
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd)
+func (c *configCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
 
-	return cc
+func (c *configCommand) Name() string {
+	return "config"
 }
 
-func (c *configCmd) printMounts(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-	cfg, err := initializeConfig(true, false, false, &c.hugoBuilderCommon, c, nil)
+func (c *configCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	conf, err := c.r.ConfigFromProvider(c.r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
+	config := conf.configs.Base
 
-	allModules := cfg.Cfg.Get("allmodules").(modules.Modules)
+	// Print it as JSON.
+	dec := json.NewEncoder(os.Stdout)
+	dec.SetIndent("", "  ")
+	dec.SetEscapeHTML(false)
 
-	for _, m := range allModules {
-		if err := parser.InterfaceToConfig(&modMounts{m: m, verbose: c.verbose}, metadecoders.JSON, os.Stdout); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
+	if err := dec.Encode(parser.ReplacingJSONMarshaller{Value: config, KeysToLower: true, OmitEmpty: true}); err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (c *configCmd) printConfig(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-	cfg, err := initializeConfig(true, false, false, &c.hugoBuilderCommon, c, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	allSettings := cfg.Cfg.Get("").(maps.Params)
-
-	// We need to clean up this, but we store objects in the config that
-	// isn't really interesting to the end user, so filter these.
-	ignoreKeysRe := regexp.MustCompile("client|sorted|filecacheconfigs|allmodules|multilingual")
-
-	separator := ": "
-
-	if len(cfg.configFiles) > 0 && strings.HasSuffix(cfg.configFiles[0], ".toml") {
-		separator = " = "
-	}
-
-	var keys []string
-	for k := range allSettings {
-		if ignoreKeysRe.MatchString(k) {
-			continue
-		}
-		keys = append(keys, k)
-	}
-	sort.Strings(keys)
-	for _, k := range keys {
-		kv := reflect.ValueOf(allSettings[k])
-		if kv.Kind() == reflect.String {
-			fmt.Printf("%s%s\"%+v\"\n", k, separator, allSettings[k])
-		} else {
-			fmt.Printf("%s%s%+v\n", k, separator, allSettings[k])
-		}
-	}
-
+func (c *configCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Print the site configuration"
+	cmd.Long = `Print the site configuration, both default and custom settings.`
 	return nil
 }
 
-type modMounts struct {
-	verbose bool
-	m       modules.Module
+func (c *configCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.r = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	return nil
 }
 
-type modMount struct {
+type configModMount struct {
 	Source string `json:"source"`
 	Target string `json:"target"`
 	Lang   string `json:"lang,omitempty"`
 }
 
+type configModMounts struct {
+	verbose bool
+	m       modules.Module
+}
+
 // MarshalJSON is for internal use only.
-func (m *modMounts) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
-	var mounts []modMount
+func (m *configModMounts) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
+	var mounts []configModMount
 
 	for _, mount := range m.m.Mounts() {
-		mounts = append(mounts, modMount{
+		mounts = append(mounts, configModMount{
 			Source: mount.Source,
 			Target: mount.Target,
 			Lang:   mount.Lang,
@@ -154,7 +118,7 @@ func (m *modMounts) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
 			Meta        map[string]any      `json:"meta"`
 			HugoVersion modules.HugoVersion `json:"hugoVersion"`
 
-			Mounts []modMount `json:"mounts"`
+			Mounts []configModMount `json:"mounts"`
 		}{
 			Path:        m.m.Path(),
 			Version:     m.m.Version(),
@@ -168,12 +132,12 @@ func (m *modMounts) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
 	}
 
 	return json.Marshal(&struct {
-		Path    string     `json:"path"`
-		Version string     `json:"version"`
-		Time    time.Time  `json:"time"`
-		Owner   string     `json:"owner"`
-		Dir     string     `json:"dir"`
-		Mounts  []modMount `json:"mounts"`
+		Path    string           `json:"path"`
+		Version string           `json:"version"`
+		Time    time.Time        `json:"time"`
+		Owner   string           `json:"owner"`
+		Dir     string           `json:"dir"`
+		Mounts  []configModMount `json:"mounts"`
 	}{
 		Path:    m.m.Path(),
 		Version: m.m.Version(),
@@ -184,3 +148,40 @@ func (m *modMounts) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
 	})
 
 }
+
+type configMountsCommand struct {
+	configCmd *configCommand
+}
+
+func (c *configMountsCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *configMountsCommand) Name() string {
+	return "mounts"
+}
+
+func (c *configMountsCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	r := c.configCmd.r
+	conf, err := r.ConfigFromProvider(r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	for _, m := range conf.configs.Modules {
+		if err := parser.InterfaceToConfig(&configModMounts{m: m, verbose: r.verbose}, metadecoders.JSON, os.Stdout); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *configMountsCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Print the configured file mounts"
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *configMountsCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.configCmd = cd.Parent.Command.(*configCommand)
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/commands/convert.go b/commands/convert.go
index 1ec965a0b..0cae5ad7e 100644
--- a/commands/convert.go
+++ b/commands/convert.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -15,122 +15,119 @@ package commands
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/pageparser"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/pageparser"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*convertCmd)(nil)
-
-type convertCmd struct {
-	outputDir string
-	unsafe    bool
-
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newConvertCmd() *convertCmd {
-	cc := &convertCmd{}
-
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "convert",
-		Short: "Convert your content to different formats",
-		Long: `Convert your content (e.g. front matter) to different formats.
-
-See convert's subcommands toJSON, toTOML and toYAML for more information.`,
-		RunE: nil,
-	}
-
-	cmd.AddCommand(
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "toJSON",
-			Short: "Convert front matter to JSON",
-			Long: `toJSON converts all front matter in the content directory
+func newConvertCommand() *convertCommand {
+	var c *convertCommand
+	c = &convertCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "toJSON",
+				short: "Convert front matter to JSON",
+				long: `toJSON converts all front matter in the content directory
 to use JSON for the front matter.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				return cc.convertContents(metadecoders.JSON)
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					return c.convertContents(metadecoders.JSON)
+				},
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+				},
 			},
-		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "toTOML",
-			Short: "Convert front matter to TOML",
-			Long: `toTOML converts all front matter in the content directory
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "toTOML",
+				short: "Convert front matter to TOML",
+				long: `toTOML converts all front matter in the content directory
 to use TOML for the front matter.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				return cc.convertContents(metadecoders.TOML)
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					return c.convertContents(metadecoders.TOML)
+				},
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+				},
 			},
-		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "toYAML",
-			Short: "Convert front matter to YAML",
-			Long: `toYAML converts all front matter in the content directory
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "toYAML",
+				short: "Convert front matter to YAML",
+				long: `toYAML converts all front matter in the content directory
 to use YAML for the front matter.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				return cc.convertContents(metadecoders.YAML)
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					return c.convertContents(metadecoders.YAML)
+				},
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+				},
 			},
 		},
-	)
+	}
+	return c
+}
 
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&cc.outputDir, "output", "o", "", "filesystem path to write files to")
-	cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&cc.unsafe, "unsafe", false, "enable less safe operations, please backup first")
+type convertCommand struct {
+	// Flags.
+	outputDir string
+	unsafe    bool
 
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd)
+	// Deps.
+	r *rootCommand
+	h *hugolib.HugoSites
 
-	return cc
+	// Commmands.
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
 }
 
-func (cc *convertCmd) convertContents(format metadecoders.Format) error {
-	if cc.outputDir == "" && !cc.unsafe {
-		return newUserError("Unsafe operation not allowed, use --unsafe or set a different output path")
-	}
+func (c *convertCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
 
-	c, err := initializeConfig(true, false, false, &cc.hugoBuilderCommon, cc, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
+func (c *convertCommand) Name() string {
+	return "convert"
+}
 
-	c.Cfg.Set("buildDrafts", true)
+func (c *convertCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	return nil
+}
 
-	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(*c.DepsCfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
+func (c *convertCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Convert your content to different formats"
+	cmd.Long = `Convert your content (e.g. front matter) to different formats.
 
-	if err := h.Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{SkipRender: true}); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
+See convert's subcommands toJSON, toTOML and toYAML for more information.`
 
-	site := h.Sites[0]
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&c.outputDir, "output", "o", "", "filesystem path to write files to")
+	cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVar(&c.unsafe, "unsafe", false, "enable less safe operations, please backup first")
 
-	site.Log.Println("processing", len(site.AllPages()), "content files")
-	for _, p := range site.AllPages() {
-		if err := cc.convertAndSavePage(p, site, format); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *convertCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.r = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg.Set("buildDrafts", true)
+	h, err := c.r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, cfg))
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
+	c.h = h
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (cc *convertCmd) convertAndSavePage(p page.Page, site *hugolib.Site, targetFormat metadecoders.Format) error {
+func (c *convertCommand) convertAndSavePage(p page.Page, site *hugolib.Site, targetFormat metadecoders.Format) error {
 	// The resources are not in .Site.AllPages.
 	for _, r := range p.Resources().ByType("page") {
-		if err := cc.convertAndSavePage(r.(page.Page), site, targetFormat); err != nil {
+		if err := c.convertAndSavePage(r.(page.Page), site, targetFormat); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	}
@@ -140,9 +137,9 @@ func (cc *convertCmd) convertAndSavePage(p page.Page, site *hugolib.Site, target
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	errMsg := fmt.Errorf("Error processing file %q", p.File().Path())
+	errMsg := fmt.Errorf("error processing file %q", p.File().Path())
 
-	site.Log.Infoln("Attempting to convert", p.File().Filename())
+	site.Log.Infoln("ttempting to convert", p.File().Filename())
 
 	f := p.File()
 	file, err := f.FileInfo().Meta().Open()
@@ -182,26 +179,45 @@ func (cc *convertCmd) convertAndSavePage(p page.Page, site *hugolib.Site, target
 
 	newFilename := p.File().Filename()
 
-	if cc.outputDir != "" {
+	if c.outputDir != "" {
 		contentDir := strings.TrimSuffix(newFilename, p.File().Path())
 		contentDir = filepath.Base(contentDir)
 
-		newFilename = filepath.Join(cc.outputDir, contentDir, p.File().Path())
+		newFilename = filepath.Join(c.outputDir, contentDir, p.File().Path())
 	}
 
 	fs := hugofs.Os
 	if err := helpers.WriteToDisk(newFilename, &newContent, fs); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("Failed to save file %q:: %w", newFilename, err)
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to save file %q:: %w", newFilename, err)
 	}
 
 	return nil
 }
 
-type parsedFile struct {
-	frontMatterFormat metadecoders.Format
-	frontMatterSource []byte
-	frontMatter       map[string]any
+func (c *convertCommand) convertContents(format metadecoders.Format) error {
+	if c.outputDir == "" && !c.unsafe {
+		return newUserError("Unsafe operation not allowed, use --unsafe or set a different output path")
+	}
+
+	if err := c.h.Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{SkipRender: true}); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	site := c.h.Sites[0]
+
+	var pagesBackedByFile page.Pages
+	for _, p := range site.AllPages() {
+		if p.File().IsZero() {
+			continue
+		}
+		pagesBackedByFile = append(pagesBackedByFile, p)
+	}
 
-	// Everything after Front Matter
-	content []byte
+	site.Log.Println("processing", len(pagesBackedByFile), "content files")
+	for _, p := range site.AllPages() {
+		if err := c.convertAndSavePage(p, site, format); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
 }
diff --git a/commands/deploy.go b/commands/deploy.go
index 295940c2e..0340ea3c4 100644
--- a/commands/deploy.go
+++ b/commands/deploy.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,76 +14,58 @@
 //go:build !nodeploy
 // +build !nodeploy
 
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
 package commands
 
 import (
 	"context"
 
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deploy"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*deployCmd)(nil)
+func newDeployCommand() simplecobra.Commander {
 
-// deployCmd supports deploying sites to Cloud providers.
-type deployCmd struct {
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-
-	invalidateCDN bool
-	maxDeletes    int
-	workers       int
-}
-
-// TODO: In addition to the "deploy" command, consider adding a "--deploy"
-// flag for the default command; this would build the site and then deploy it.
-// It's not obvious how to do this; would all of the deploy-specific flags
-// have to exist at the top level as well?
-
-// TODO:  The output files change every time "hugo" is executed, it looks
-// like because of map order randomization. This means that you can
-// run "hugo && hugo deploy" again and again and upload new stuff every time. Is
-// this intended?
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newDeployCmd() *deployCmd {
-	cc := &deployCmd{}
-
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "deploy",
-		Short: "Deploy your site to a Cloud provider.",
-		Long: `Deploy your site to a Cloud provider.
+	return &simpleCommand{
+		name:  "deploy",
+		short: "Deploy your site to a Cloud provider.",
+		long: `Deploy your site to a Cloud provider.
 
 See https://gohugo.io/hosting-and-deployment/hugo-deploy/ for detailed
 documentation.
 `,
-
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			cfgInit := func(c *commandeer) error {
-				c.Set("invalidateCDN", cc.invalidateCDN)
-				c.Set("maxDeletes", cc.maxDeletes)
-				c.Set("workers", cc.workers)
-				return nil
-			}
-			comm, err := initializeConfig(true, true, false, &cc.hugoBuilderCommon, cc, cfgInit)
+		run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+			h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfgWithAdditionalConfigBase(cd, nil, "deployment"))
 			if err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
-			deployer, err := deploy.New(comm.Cfg, comm.hugo().PathSpec.PublishFs)
+			deployer, err := deploy.New(h.Configs.GetFirstLanguageConfig(), h.PathSpec.PublishFs)
 			if err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
-			return deployer.Deploy(context.Background())
+			return deployer.Deploy(ctx)
+		},
+		withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+			cmd.Flags().String("target", "", "target deployment from deployments section in config file; defaults to the first one")
+			cmd.Flags().Bool("confirm", false, "ask for confirmation before making changes to the target")
+			cmd.Flags().Bool("dryRun", false, "dry run")
+			cmd.Flags().Bool("force", false, "force upload of all files")
+			cmd.Flags().Bool("invalidateCDN", true, "invalidate the CDN cache listed in the deployment target")
+			cmd.Flags().Int("maxDeletes", 256, "maximum # of files to delete, or -1 to disable")
+			cmd.Flags().Int("workers", 10, "number of workers to transfer files. defaults to 10")
 		},
 	}
-
-	cmd.Flags().String("target", "", "target deployment from deployments section in config file; defaults to the first one")
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("confirm", false, "ask for confirmation before making changes to the target")
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("dryRun", false, "dry run")
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("force", false, "force upload of all files")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.invalidateCDN, "invalidateCDN", true, "invalidate the CDN cache listed in the deployment target")
-	cmd.Flags().IntVar(&cc.maxDeletes, "maxDeletes", 256, "maximum # of files to delete, or -1 to disable")
-	cmd.Flags().IntVar(&cc.workers, "workers", 10, "number of workers to transfer files. defaults to 10")
-
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd)
-
-	return cc
 }
diff --git a/commands/deploy_off.go b/commands/deploy_off.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5e9b91f16
--- /dev/null
+++ b/commands/deploy_off.go
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+//go:build nodeploy
+// +build nodeploy
+
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package commands
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+)
+
+func newDeployCommand() simplecobra.Commander {
+	return &simpleCommand{
+		name: "deploy",
+		run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+			return nil
+		},
+		withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+			cmd.Hidden = true
+		},
+	}
+}
diff --git a/commands/env.go b/commands/env.go
index 0fc509d6d..a6db551e9 100644
--- a/commands/env.go
+++ b/commands/env.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2016 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,55 +14,50 @@
 package commands
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"runtime"
 
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*envCmd)(nil)
-
-type envCmd struct {
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-func newEnvCmd() *envCmd {
-	return &envCmd{
-		baseCmd: newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "env",
-			Short: "Print Hugo version and environment info",
-			Long: `Print Hugo version and environment info. This is useful in Hugo bug reports.
-
-If you add the -v flag, you will get a full dependency list.
-`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				printHugoVersion()
-				jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("GOOS=%q\n", runtime.GOOS)
-				jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("GOARCH=%q\n", runtime.GOARCH)
-				jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("GOVERSION=%q\n", runtime.Version())
-
-				isVerbose, _ := cmd.Flags().GetBool("verbose")
-
-				if isVerbose {
-					deps := hugo.GetDependencyList()
-					for _, dep := range deps {
-						jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("%s\n", dep)
-					}
-				} else {
-					// These are also included in the GetDependencyList above;
-					// always print these as these are most likely the most useful to know about.
-					deps := hugo.GetDependencyListNonGo()
-					for _, dep := range deps {
-						jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("%s\n", dep)
-					}
-
+func newEnvCommand() simplecobra.Commander {
+	return &simpleCommand{
+		name:  "env",
+		short: "Print Hugo version and environment info",
+		long:  "Print Hugo version and environment info. This is useful in Hugo bug reports",
+		run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+			r.Printf("%s\n", hugo.BuildVersionString())
+			r.Printf("GOOS=%q\n", runtime.GOOS)
+			r.Printf("GOARCH=%q\n", runtime.GOARCH)
+			r.Printf("GOVERSION=%q\n", runtime.Version())
+
+			if r.verbose {
+				deps := hugo.GetDependencyList()
+				for _, dep := range deps {
+					r.Printf("%s\n", dep)
 				}
-
-				return nil
-			},
-		}),
+			} else {
+				// These are also included in the GetDependencyList above;
+				// always print these as these are most likely the most useful to know about.
+				deps := hugo.GetDependencyListNonGo()
+				for _, dep := range deps {
+					r.Printf("%s\n", dep)
+				}
+			}
+			return nil
+		},
 	}
+}
 
+func newVersionCmd() simplecobra.Commander {
+	return &simpleCommand{
+		name: "version",
+		run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+			r.Println(hugo.BuildVersionString())
+			return nil
+		},
+		short: "Print Hugo version and environment info",
+		long:  "Print Hugo version and environment info. This is useful in Hugo bug reports.",
+	}
 }
diff --git a/commands/gen.go b/commands/gen.go
index c44eba36c..7ff75372a 100644
--- a/commands/gen.go
+++ b/commands/gen.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,27 +14,200 @@
 package commands
 
 import (
+	"context"
+	"fmt"
+	"os"
+	"path"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/alecthomas/chroma/v2"
+	"github.com/alecthomas/chroma/v2/formatters/html"
+	"github.com/alecthomas/chroma/v2/styles"
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra/doc"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*genCmd)(nil)
+func newGenCommand() *genCommand {
+	var (
+		// Flags.
+		gendocdir string
+		genmandir string
+
+		// Chroma flags.
+		style          string
+		highlightStyle string
+		linesStyle     string
+	)
+
+	newChromaStyles := func() simplecobra.Commander {
+		return &simpleCommand{
+			name:  "chromastyles",
+			short: "Generate CSS stylesheet for the Chroma code highlighter",
+			long: `Generate CSS stylesheet for the Chroma code highlighter for a given style. This stylesheet is needed if markup.highlight.noClasses is disabled in config.
+
+See https://xyproto.github.io/splash/docs/all.html for a preview of the available styles`,
+
+			run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+				builder := styles.Get(style).Builder()
+				if highlightStyle != "" {
+					builder.Add(chroma.LineHighlight, highlightStyle)
+				}
+				if linesStyle != "" {
+					builder.Add(chroma.LineNumbers, linesStyle)
+				}
+				style, err := builder.Build()
+				if err != nil {
+					return err
+				}
+				formatter := html.New(html.WithAllClasses(true))
+				formatter.WriteCSS(os.Stdout, style)
+				return nil
+			},
+			withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+				cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&style, "style", "friendly", "highlighter style (see https://xyproto.github.io/splash/docs/)")
+				cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&highlightStyle, "highlightStyle", "bg:#ffffcc", "style used for highlighting lines (see https://github.com/alecthomas/chroma)")
+				cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&linesStyle, "linesStyle", "", "style used for line numbers (see https://github.com/alecthomas/chroma)")
+			},
+		}
+	}
+
+	newMan := func() simplecobra.Commander {
+		return &simpleCommand{
+			name:  "man",
+			short: "Generate man pages for the Hugo CLI",
+			long: `This command automatically generates up-to-date man pages of Hugo's
+	command-line interface.  By default, it creates the man page files
+	in the "man" directory under the current directory.`,
+
+			run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+				header := &doc.GenManHeader{
+					Section: "1",
+					Manual:  "Hugo Manual",
+					Source:  fmt.Sprintf("Hugo %s", hugo.CurrentVersion),
+				}
+				if !strings.HasSuffix(genmandir, helpers.FilePathSeparator) {
+					genmandir += helpers.FilePathSeparator
+				}
+				if found, _ := helpers.Exists(genmandir, hugofs.Os); !found {
+					r.Println("Directory", genmandir, "does not exist, creating...")
+					if err := hugofs.Os.MkdirAll(genmandir, 0777); err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+				}
+				cd.CobraCommand.Root().DisableAutoGenTag = true
+
+				r.Println("Generating Hugo man pages in", genmandir, "...")
+				doc.GenManTree(cd.CobraCommand.Root(), header, genmandir)
+
+				r.Println("Done.")
+
+				return nil
+			},
+			withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+				cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&genmandir, "dir", "man/", "the directory to write the man pages.")
+				// For bash-completion
+				cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("dir", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
+			},
+		}
+	}
+
+	newGen := func() simplecobra.Commander {
+		const gendocFrontmatterTemplate = `---
+title: "%s"
+slug: %s
+url: %s
+---
+`
+
+		return &simpleCommand{
+			name:  "doc",
+			short: "Generate Markdown documentation for the Hugo CLI.",
+			long: `Generate Markdown documentation for the Hugo CLI.
+			This command is, mostly, used to create up-to-date documentation
+	of Hugo's command-line interface for https://gohugo.io/.
+	
+	It creates one Markdown file per command with front matter suitable
+	for rendering in Hugo.`,
+			run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+				cd.CobraCommand.VisitParents(func(c *cobra.Command) {
+					// Disable the "Auto generated by spf13/cobra on DATE"
+					// as it creates a lot of diffs.
+					c.DisableAutoGenTag = true
+				})
+				if !strings.HasSuffix(gendocdir, helpers.FilePathSeparator) {
+					gendocdir += helpers.FilePathSeparator
+				}
+				if found, _ := helpers.Exists(gendocdir, hugofs.Os); !found {
+					r.Println("Directory", gendocdir, "does not exist, creating...")
+					if err := hugofs.Os.MkdirAll(gendocdir, 0777); err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+				}
+				prepender := func(filename string) string {
+					name := filepath.Base(filename)
+					base := strings.TrimSuffix(name, path.Ext(name))
+					url := "/commands/" + strings.ToLower(base) + "/"
+					return fmt.Sprintf(gendocFrontmatterTemplate, strings.Replace(base, "_", " ", -1), base, url)
+				}
+
+				linkHandler := func(name string) string {
+					base := strings.TrimSuffix(name, path.Ext(name))
+					return "/commands/" + strings.ToLower(base) + "/"
+				}
+				r.Println("Generating Hugo command-line documentation in", gendocdir, "...")
+				doc.GenMarkdownTreeCustom(cd.CobraCommand.Root(), gendocdir, prepender, linkHandler)
+				r.Println("Done.")
 
-type genCmd struct {
-	*baseCmd
+				return nil
+			},
+			withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+				cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&gendocdir, "dir", "/tmp/hugodoc/", "the directory to write the doc.")
+				// For bash-completion
+				cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("dir", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
+			},
+		}
+
+	}
+
+	return &genCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			newChromaStyles(),
+			newGen(),
+			newMan(),
+		},
+	}
+
+}
+
+type genCommand struct {
+	rootCmd *rootCommand
+
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
 }
 
-func newGenCmd() *genCmd {
-	cc := &genCmd{}
-	cc.baseCmd = newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "gen",
-		Short: "A collection of several useful generators.",
-	})
+func (c *genCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
+
+func (c *genCommand) Name() string {
+	return "gen"
+}
 
-	cc.cmd.AddCommand(
-		newGenDocCmd().getCommand(),
-		newGenManCmd().getCommand(),
-		createGenDocsHelper().getCommand(),
-		createGenChromaStyles().getCommand())
+func (c *genCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *genCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "A collection of several useful generators."
+	return nil
+}
 
-	return cc
+func (c *genCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.rootCmd = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	return nil
 }
diff --git a/commands/genchromastyles.go b/commands/genchromastyles.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 4dfa77d2e..000000000
--- a/commands/genchromastyles.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,72 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2017-present The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"os"
-
-	"github.com/alecthomas/chroma/v2"
-	"github.com/alecthomas/chroma/v2/formatters/html"
-	"github.com/alecthomas/chroma/v2/styles"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*genChromaStyles)(nil)
-
-type genChromaStyles struct {
-	style          string
-	highlightStyle string
-	linesStyle     string
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-// TODO(bep) highlight
-func createGenChromaStyles() *genChromaStyles {
-	g := &genChromaStyles{
-		baseCmd: newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "chromastyles",
-			Short: "Generate CSS stylesheet for the Chroma code highlighter",
-			Long: `Generate CSS stylesheet for the Chroma code highlighter for a given style. This stylesheet is needed if markup.highlight.noClasses is disabled in config.
-
-See https://xyproto.github.io/splash/docs/all.html for a preview of the available styles`,
-		}),
-	}
-
-	g.cmd.RunE = func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-		return g.generate()
-	}
-
-	g.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&g.style, "style", "friendly", "highlighter style (see https://xyproto.github.io/splash/docs/)")
-	g.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&g.highlightStyle, "highlightStyle", "bg:#ffffcc", "style used for highlighting lines (see https://github.com/alecthomas/chroma)")
-	g.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&g.linesStyle, "linesStyle", "", "style used for line numbers (see https://github.com/alecthomas/chroma)")
-
-	return g
-}
-
-func (g *genChromaStyles) generate() error {
-	builder := styles.Get(g.style).Builder()
-	if g.highlightStyle != "" {
-		builder.Add(chroma.LineHighlight, g.highlightStyle)
-	}
-	if g.linesStyle != "" {
-		builder.Add(chroma.LineNumbers, g.linesStyle)
-	}
-	style, err := builder.Build()
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	formatter := html.New(html.WithAllClasses(true))
-	formatter.WriteCSS(os.Stdout, style)
-	return nil
-}
diff --git a/commands/gendoc.go b/commands/gendoc.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 8ecb0ec0d..000000000
--- a/commands/gendoc.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,98 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2016 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"fmt"
-	"path"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra/doc"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*genDocCmd)(nil)
-
-type genDocCmd struct {
-	gendocdir string
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-func newGenDocCmd() *genDocCmd {
-	const gendocFrontmatterTemplate = `---
-title: "%s"
-slug: %s
-url: %s
----
-`
-
-	cc := &genDocCmd{}
-
-	cc.baseCmd = newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "doc",
-		Short: "Generate Markdown documentation for the Hugo CLI.",
-		Long: `Generate Markdown documentation for the Hugo CLI.
-
-This command is, mostly, used to create up-to-date documentation
-of Hugo's command-line interface for https://gohugo.io/.
-
-It creates one Markdown file per command with front matter suitable
-for rendering in Hugo.`,
-
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			cmd.VisitParents(func(c *cobra.Command) {
-				// Disable the "Auto generated by spf13/cobra on DATE"
-				// as it creates a lot of diffs.
-				c.DisableAutoGenTag = true
-			})
-
-			if !strings.HasSuffix(cc.gendocdir, helpers.FilePathSeparator) {
-				cc.gendocdir += helpers.FilePathSeparator
-			}
-			if found, _ := helpers.Exists(cc.gendocdir, hugofs.Os); !found {
-				jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Directory", cc.gendocdir, "does not exist, creating...")
-				if err := hugofs.Os.MkdirAll(cc.gendocdir, 0777); err != nil {
-					return err
-				}
-			}
-			prepender := func(filename string) string {
-				name := filepath.Base(filename)
-				base := strings.TrimSuffix(name, path.Ext(name))
-				url := "/commands/" + strings.ToLower(base) + "/"
-				return fmt.Sprintf(gendocFrontmatterTemplate, strings.Replace(base, "_", " ", -1), base, url)
-			}
-
-			linkHandler := func(name string) string {
-				base := strings.TrimSuffix(name, path.Ext(name))
-				return "/commands/" + strings.ToLower(base) + "/"
-			}
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Generating Hugo command-line documentation in", cc.gendocdir, "...")
-			doc.GenMarkdownTreeCustom(cmd.Root(), cc.gendocdir, prepender, linkHandler)
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Done.")
-
-			return nil
-		},
-	})
-
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&cc.gendocdir, "dir", "/tmp/hugodoc/", "the directory to write the doc.")
-
-	// For bash-completion
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("dir", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
-
-	return cc
-}
diff --git a/commands/gendocshelper.go b/commands/gendocshelper.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 34d45154f..000000000
--- a/commands/gendocshelper.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2017-present The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"encoding/json"
-	"fmt"
-	"os"
-	"path/filepath"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/docshelper"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*genDocsHelper)(nil)
-
-type genDocsHelper struct {
-	target string
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-func createGenDocsHelper() *genDocsHelper {
-	g := &genDocsHelper{
-		baseCmd: newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-			Use:    "docshelper",
-			Short:  "Generate some data files for the Hugo docs.",
-			Hidden: true,
-		}),
-	}
-
-	g.cmd.RunE = func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-		return g.generate()
-	}
-
-	g.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&g.target, "dir", "", "docs/data", "data dir")
-
-	return g
-}
-
-func (g *genDocsHelper) generate() error {
-	fmt.Println("Generate docs data to", g.target)
-
-	targetFile := filepath.Join(g.target, "docs.json")
-
-	f, err := os.Create(targetFile)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	defer f.Close()
-
-	enc := json.NewEncoder(f)
-	enc.SetIndent("", "  ")
-
-	if err := enc.Encode(docshelper.GetDocProvider()); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	fmt.Println("Done!")
-	return nil
-}
diff --git a/commands/genman.go b/commands/genman.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 720046289..000000000
--- a/commands/genman.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,77 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2016 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"fmt"
-	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra/doc"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*genManCmd)(nil)
-
-type genManCmd struct {
-	genmandir string
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-func newGenManCmd() *genManCmd {
-	cc := &genManCmd{}
-
-	cc.baseCmd = newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "man",
-		Short: "Generate man pages for the Hugo CLI",
-		Long: `This command automatically generates up-to-date man pages of Hugo's
-command-line interface.  By default, it creates the man page files
-in the "man" directory under the current directory.`,
-
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			header := &doc.GenManHeader{
-				Section: "1",
-				Manual:  "Hugo Manual",
-				Source:  fmt.Sprintf("Hugo %s", hugo.CurrentVersion),
-			}
-			if !strings.HasSuffix(cc.genmandir, helpers.FilePathSeparator) {
-				cc.genmandir += helpers.FilePathSeparator
-			}
-			if found, _ := helpers.Exists(cc.genmandir, hugofs.Os); !found {
-				jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Directory", cc.genmandir, "does not exist, creating...")
-				if err := hugofs.Os.MkdirAll(cc.genmandir, 0777); err != nil {
-					return err
-				}
-			}
-			cmd.Root().DisableAutoGenTag = true
-
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Generating Hugo man pages in", cc.genmandir, "...")
-			doc.GenManTree(cmd.Root(), header, cc.genmandir)
-
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Done.")
-
-			return nil
-		},
-	})
-
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().StringVar(&cc.genmandir, "dir", "man/", "the directory to write the man pages.")
-
-	// For bash-completion
-	cc.cmd.PersistentFlags().SetAnnotation("dir", cobra.BashCompSubdirsInDir, []string{})
-
-	return cc
-}
diff --git a/commands/helpers.go b/commands/helpers.go
index 71f686953..c342ce2c7 100644
--- a/commands/helpers.go
+++ b/commands/helpers.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,16 +11,22 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-// Package commands defines and implements command-line commands and flags
-// used by Hugo. Commands and flags are implemented using Cobra.
 package commands
 
 import (
+	"bytes"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"regexp"
+	"log"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
 
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
 )
 
 const (
@@ -30,50 +36,101 @@ const (
 	showCursor = ansiEsc + "[?25h"
 )
 
-type flagsToConfigHandler interface {
-	flagsToConfig(cfg config.Provider)
+func newUserError(a ...any) *simplecobra.CommandError {
+	return &simplecobra.CommandError{Err: errors.New(fmt.Sprint(a...))}
 }
 
-type cmder interface {
-	flagsToConfigHandler
-	getCommand() *cobra.Command
-}
+func setValueFromFlag(flags *pflag.FlagSet, key string, cfg config.Provider, targetKey string, force bool) {
+	key = strings.TrimSpace(key)
+	if (force && flags.Lookup(key) != nil) || flags.Changed(key) {
+		f := flags.Lookup(key)
+		configKey := key
+		if targetKey != "" {
+			configKey = targetKey
+		}
+		// Gotta love this API.
+		switch f.Value.Type() {
+		case "bool":
+			bv, _ := flags.GetBool(key)
+			cfg.Set(configKey, bv)
+		case "string":
+			cfg.Set(configKey, f.Value.String())
+		case "stringSlice":
+			bv, _ := flags.GetStringSlice(key)
+			cfg.Set(configKey, bv)
+		case "int":
+			iv, _ := flags.GetInt(key)
+			cfg.Set(configKey, iv)
+		default:
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("update switch with %s", f.Value.Type()))
+		}
 
-// commandError is an error used to signal different error situations in command handling.
-type commandError struct {
-	s         string
-	userError bool
+	}
 }
 
-func (c commandError) Error() string {
-	return c.s
+func flagsToCfg(cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, cfg config.Provider) config.Provider {
+	return flagsToCfgWithAdditionalConfigBase(cd, cfg, "")
 }
 
-func (c commandError) isUserError() bool {
-	return c.userError
-}
+func flagsToCfgWithAdditionalConfigBase(cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, cfg config.Provider, additionalConfigBase string) config.Provider {
+	if cfg == nil {
+		cfg = config.New()
+	}
 
-func newUserError(a ...any) commandError {
-	return commandError{s: fmt.Sprintln(a...), userError: true}
-}
+	// Flags with a different name in the config.
+	keyMap := map[string]string{
+		"minify":            "minifyOutput",
+		"destination":       "publishDir",
+		"printI18nWarnings": "logI18nWarnings",
+		"printPathWarnings": "logPathWarnings",
+		"editor":            "newContentEditor",
+	}
 
-func newSystemError(a ...any) commandError {
-	return commandError{s: fmt.Sprintln(a...), userError: false}
-}
+	// Flags that we for some reason don't want to expose in the site config.
+	internalKeySet := map[string]bool{
+		"quiet":             true,
+		"verbose":           true,
+		"watch":             true,
+		"disableLiveReload": true,
+		"liveReloadPort":    true,
+		"renderToMemory":    true,
+		"clock":             true,
+	}
 
-func newSystemErrorF(format string, a ...any) commandError {
-	return commandError{s: fmt.Sprintf(format, a...), userError: false}
-}
+	cmd := cd.CobraCommand
+	flags := cmd.Flags()
 
-// Catch some of the obvious user errors from Cobra.
-// We don't want to show the usage message for every error.
-// The below may be to generic. Time will show.
-var userErrorRegexp = regexp.MustCompile("unknown flag")
+	flags.VisitAll(func(f *pflag.Flag) {
+		if f.Changed {
+			targetKey := f.Name
+			if internalKeySet[targetKey] {
+				targetKey = "internal." + targetKey
+			} else if mapped, ok := keyMap[targetKey]; ok {
+				targetKey = mapped
+			}
+			setValueFromFlag(flags, f.Name, cfg, targetKey, false)
+			if additionalConfigBase != "" {
+				setValueFromFlag(flags, f.Name, cfg, additionalConfigBase+"."+targetKey, true)
+			}
+		}
+	})
 
-func isUserError(err error) bool {
-	if cErr, ok := err.(commandError); ok && cErr.isUserError() {
-		return true
+	return cfg
+
+}
+
+func mkdir(x ...string) {
+	p := filepath.Join(x...)
+	err := os.MkdirAll(p, 0777) // before umask
+	if err != nil {
+		log.Fatal(err)
 	}
+}
 
-	return userErrorRegexp.MatchString(err.Error())
+func touchFile(fs afero.Fs, filename string) {
+	mkdir(filepath.Dir(filename))
+	err := helpers.WriteToDisk(filename, bytes.NewReader([]byte{}), fs)
+	if err != nil {
+		log.Fatal(err)
+	}
 }
diff --git a/commands/hugo_test.go b/commands/hugo_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 1e1326642..000000000
--- a/commands/hugo_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,206 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"bytes"
-	"fmt"
-	"math/rand"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
-	"testing"
-
-	"github.com/bep/clock"
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-	"golang.org/x/tools/txtar"
-)
-
-// Issue #5662
-func TestHugoWithContentDirOverride(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	files := `
--- config.toml --
-baseURL = "https://example.org"
-title = "Hugo Commands"
--- mycontent/p1.md --
----
-title: "P1"
----
--- layouts/_default/single.html --
-Page: {{ .Title }}|
-
-`
-	s := newTestHugoCmdBuilder(c, files, []string{"-c", "mycontent"}).Build()
-	s.AssertFileContent("public/p1/index.html", `Page: P1|`)
-
-}
-
-// Issue #9794
-func TestHugoStaticFilesMultipleStaticAndManyFolders(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	files := `
--- config.toml --
-baseURL = "https://example.org"
-theme = "mytheme"
--- layouts/index.html --
-Home.
-
-`
-	const (
-		numDirs     = 33
-		numFilesMax = 12
-	)
-
-	r := rand.New(rand.NewSource(32))
-
-	for i := 0; i < numDirs; i++ {
-		for j := 0; j < r.Intn(numFilesMax); j++ {
-			if j%3 == 0 {
-				files += fmt.Sprintf("-- themes/mytheme/static/d%d/f%d.txt --\nHellot%d-%d\n", i, j, i, j)
-				files += fmt.Sprintf("-- themes/mytheme/static/d%d/ft%d.txt --\nHellot%d-%d\n", i, j, i, j)
-			}
-			files += fmt.Sprintf("-- static/d%d/f%d.txt --\nHello%d-%d\n", i, j, i, j)
-		}
-	}
-
-	r = rand.New(rand.NewSource(32))
-
-	s := newTestHugoCmdBuilder(c, files, []string{"-c", "mycontent"}).Build()
-	for i := 0; i < numDirs; i++ {
-		for j := 0; j < r.Intn(numFilesMax); j++ {
-			if j%3 == 0 {
-				if j%3 == 0 {
-					s.AssertFileContent(fmt.Sprintf("public/d%d/ft%d.txt", i, j), fmt.Sprintf("Hellot%d-%d", i, j))
-				}
-				s.AssertFileContent(fmt.Sprintf("public/d%d/f%d.txt", i, j), fmt.Sprintf("Hello%d-%d", i, j))
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-}
-
-// Issue #8787
-func TestHugoListCommandsWithClockFlag(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Cleanup(func() { htime.Clock = clock.System() })
-
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	files := `
--- config.toml --
-baseURL = "https://example.org"
-title = "Hugo Commands"
-timeZone = "UTC"
--- content/past.md --
----
-title: "Past"
-date: 2000-11-06
----
--- content/future.md --
----
-title: "Future"
-date: 2200-11-06
----
--- layouts/_default/single.html --
-Page: {{ .Title }}|
-
-`
-	s := newTestHugoCmdBuilder(c, files, []string{"list", "future"})
-	s.captureOut = true
-	s.Build()
-	p := filepath.Join("content", "future.md")
-	s.AssertStdout(p + ",2200-11-06T00:00:00Z")
-
-	s = newTestHugoCmdBuilder(c, files, []string{"list", "future", "--clock", "2300-11-06"}).Build()
-	s.AssertStdout("")
-}
-
-type testHugoCmdBuilder struct {
-	*qt.C
-
-	fs    afero.Fs
-	dir   string
-	files string
-	args  []string
-
-	captureOut bool
-	out        string
-}
-
-func newTestHugoCmdBuilder(c *qt.C, files string, args []string) *testHugoCmdBuilder {
-	s := &testHugoCmdBuilder{C: c, files: files, args: args}
-	s.dir = s.TempDir()
-	s.fs = afero.NewBasePathFs(hugofs.Os, s.dir)
-
-	return s
-}
-
-func (s *testHugoCmdBuilder) Build() *testHugoCmdBuilder {
-	data := txtar.Parse([]byte(s.files))
-
-	for _, f := range data.Files {
-		filename := filepath.Clean(f.Name)
-		data := bytes.TrimSuffix(f.Data, []byte("\n"))
-		s.Assert(s.fs.MkdirAll(filepath.Dir(filename), 0777), qt.IsNil)
-		s.Assert(afero.WriteFile(s.fs, filename, data, 0666), qt.IsNil)
-	}
-
-	hugoCmd := newCommandsBuilder().addAll().build()
-	cmd := hugoCmd.getCommand()
-	args := append(s.args, "-s="+s.dir, "--quiet")
-	cmd.SetArgs(args)
-
-	if s.captureOut {
-		out, err := captureStdout(func() error {
-			_, err := cmd.ExecuteC()
-			return err
-		})
-		s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		s.out = out
-	} else {
-		_, err := cmd.ExecuteC()
-		s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	}
-
-	return s
-}
-
-func (s *testHugoCmdBuilder) AssertFileContent(filename string, matches ...string) {
-	s.Helper()
-	data, err := afero.ReadFile(s.fs, filename)
-	s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	content := strings.TrimSpace(string(data))
-	for _, m := range matches {
-		lines := strings.Split(m, "\n")
-		for _, match := range lines {
-			match = strings.TrimSpace(match)
-			if match == "" || strings.HasPrefix(match, "#") {
-				continue
-			}
-			s.Assert(content, qt.Contains, match, qt.Commentf(m))
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func (s *testHugoCmdBuilder) AssertStdout(match string) {
-	s.Helper()
-	content := strings.TrimSpace(s.out)
-	s.Assert(content, qt.Contains, strings.TrimSpace(match))
-}
diff --git a/commands/hugo_windows.go b/commands/hugo_windows.go
index 1724f12cd..e1fd98132 100644
--- a/commands/hugo_windows.go
+++ b/commands/hugo_windows.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
diff --git a/commands/hugo.go b/commands/hugobuilder.go
index 1a35d1626..7c6dbee35 100644
--- a/commands/hugo.go
+++ b/commands/hugobuilder.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,353 +11,172 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-// Package commands defines and implements command-line commands and flags
-// used by Hugo. Commands and flags are implemented using Cobra.
 package commands
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"os"
-	"os/signal"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"runtime"
 	"runtime/pprof"
 	"runtime/trace"
 	"strings"
-	"sync/atomic"
-	"syscall"
+	"sync"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/files"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
-
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/terminal"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/filesystems"
-
-	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
-	flag "github.com/spf13/pflag"
-
-	"github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/filesystems"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/livereload"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/watcher"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 	"github.com/spf13/fsync"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
+	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
+	"golang.org/x/sync/semaphore"
 )
 
-// The Response value from Execute.
-type Response struct {
-	// The build Result will only be set in the hugo build command.
-	Result *hugolib.HugoSites
+type hugoBuilder struct {
+	r *rootCommand
 
-	// Err is set when the command failed to execute.
-	Err error
+	cunfMu sync.Mutex
+	conf_  *commonConfig
 
-	// The command that was executed.
-	Cmd *cobra.Command
-}
+	// May be nil.
+	s *serverCommand
 
-// IsUserError returns true is the Response error is a user error rather than a
-// system error.
-func (r Response) IsUserError() bool {
-	return r.Err != nil && isUserError(r.Err)
-}
-
-// Execute adds all child commands to the root command HugoCmd and sets flags appropriately.
-// The args are usually filled with os.Args[1:].
-func Execute(args []string) Response {
-	hugoCmd := newCommandsBuilder().addAll().build()
-	cmd := hugoCmd.getCommand()
-	cmd.SetArgs(args)
+	// Currently only set when in "fast render mode".
+	changeDetector *fileChangeDetector
+	visitedURLs    *types.EvictingStringQueue
 
-	c, err := cmd.ExecuteC()
+	fullRebuildSem *semaphore.Weighted
+	debounce       func(f func())
 
-	var resp Response
+	onConfigLoaded func(reloaded bool) error
 
-	if c == cmd && hugoCmd.c != nil {
-		// Root command executed
-		resp.Result = hugoCmd.c.hugo()
-	}
+	fastRenderMode     bool
+	buildWatch         bool
+	showErrorInBrowser bool
 
-	if err == nil {
-		errCount := int(loggers.GlobalErrorCounter.Count())
-		if errCount > 0 {
-			err = fmt.Errorf("logged %d errors", errCount)
-		} else if resp.Result != nil {
-			errCount = resp.Result.NumLogErrors()
-			if errCount > 0 {
-				err = fmt.Errorf("logged %d errors", errCount)
-			}
-		}
-
-	}
-
-	resp.Err = err
-	resp.Cmd = c
-
-	return resp
+	errState hugoBuilderErrState
 }
 
-// InitializeConfig initializes a config file with sensible default configuration flags.
-func initializeConfig(mustHaveConfigFile, failOnInitErr, running bool,
-	h *hugoBuilderCommon,
-	f flagsToConfigHandler,
-	cfgInit func(c *commandeer) error) (*commandeer, error) {
-	c, err := newCommandeer(mustHaveConfigFile, failOnInitErr, running, h, f, cfgInit)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	if h := c.hugoTry(); h != nil {
-		for _, s := range h.Sites {
-			s.RegisterMediaTypes()
-		}
-	}
-
-	return c, nil
+func (c *hugoBuilder) conf() *commonConfig {
+	c.cunfMu.Lock()
+	defer c.cunfMu.Unlock()
+	return c.conf_
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) createLogger(cfg config.Provider) (loggers.Logger, error) {
-	var (
-		logHandle       = io.Discard
-		logThreshold    = jww.LevelWarn
-		logFile         = cfg.GetString("logFile")
-		outHandle       = io.Discard
-		stdoutThreshold = jww.LevelWarn
-	)
-
-	if !c.h.quiet {
-		outHandle = os.Stdout
-	}
-
-	if c.h.verboseLog || c.h.logging || (c.h.logFile != "") {
-		var err error
-		if logFile != "" {
-			logHandle, err = os.OpenFile(logFile, os.O_RDWR|os.O_APPEND|os.O_CREATE, 0666)
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, newSystemError("Failed to open log file:", logFile, err)
-			}
-		} else {
-			logHandle, err = os.CreateTemp("", "hugo")
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, newSystemError(err)
-			}
-		}
-	} else if !c.h.quiet && cfg.GetBool("verbose") {
-		stdoutThreshold = jww.LevelInfo
-	}
-
-	if cfg.GetBool("debug") {
-		stdoutThreshold = jww.LevelDebug
-	}
-
-	if c.h.verboseLog {
-		logThreshold = jww.LevelInfo
-		if cfg.GetBool("debug") {
-			logThreshold = jww.LevelDebug
-		}
-	}
-
-	loggers.InitGlobalLogger(stdoutThreshold, logThreshold, outHandle, logHandle)
-	helpers.InitLoggers()
-
-	return loggers.NewLogger(stdoutThreshold, logThreshold, outHandle, logHandle, c.running), nil
+func (c *hugoBuilder) setConf(conf *commonConfig) {
+	c.cunfMu.Lock()
+	defer c.cunfMu.Unlock()
+	c.conf_ = conf
 }
 
-func initializeFlags(cmd *cobra.Command, cfg config.Provider) {
-	persFlagKeys := []string{
-		"debug",
-		"verbose",
-		"logFile",
-		// Moved from vars
-	}
-	flagKeys := []string{
-		"cleanDestinationDir",
-		"buildDrafts",
-		"buildFuture",
-		"buildExpired",
-		"clock",
-		"uglyURLs",
-		"canonifyURLs",
-		"enableRobotsTXT",
-		"enableGitInfo",
-		"pluralizeListTitles",
-		"preserveTaxonomyNames",
-		"ignoreCache",
-		"forceSyncStatic",
-		"noTimes",
-		"noChmod",
-		"noBuildLock",
-		"ignoreVendorPaths",
-		"templateMetrics",
-		"templateMetricsHints",
-
-		// Moved from vars.
-		"baseURL",
-		"buildWatch",
-		"cacheDir",
-		"cfgFile",
-		"confirm",
-		"contentDir",
-		"debug",
-		"destination",
-		"disableKinds",
-		"dryRun",
-		"force",
-		"gc",
-		"printI18nWarnings",
-		"printUnusedTemplates",
-		"invalidateCDN",
-		"layoutDir",
-		"logFile",
-		"maxDeletes",
-		"quiet",
-		"renderToMemory",
-		"source",
-		"target",
-		"theme",
-		"themesDir",
-		"verbose",
-		"verboseLog",
-		"workers",
-		"duplicateTargetPaths",
-	}
+type hugoBuilderErrState struct {
+	mu       sync.Mutex
+	paused   bool
+	builderr error
+	waserr   bool
+}
 
-	for _, key := range persFlagKeys {
-		setValueFromFlag(cmd.PersistentFlags(), key, cfg, "", false)
-	}
-	for _, key := range flagKeys {
-		setValueFromFlag(cmd.Flags(), key, cfg, "", false)
-	}
+func (e *hugoBuilderErrState) setPaused(p bool) {
+	e.mu.Lock()
+	defer e.mu.Unlock()
+	e.paused = p
+}
 
-	setValueFromFlag(cmd.Flags(), "minify", cfg, "minifyOutput", true)
+func (e *hugoBuilderErrState) isPaused() bool {
+	e.mu.Lock()
+	defer e.mu.Unlock()
+	return e.paused
+}
 
-	// Set some "config aliases"
-	setValueFromFlag(cmd.Flags(), "destination", cfg, "publishDir", false)
-	setValueFromFlag(cmd.Flags(), "printI18nWarnings", cfg, "logI18nWarnings", false)
-	setValueFromFlag(cmd.Flags(), "printPathWarnings", cfg, "logPathWarnings", false)
+func (e *hugoBuilderErrState) setBuildErr(err error) {
+	e.mu.Lock()
+	defer e.mu.Unlock()
+	e.builderr = err
+}
 
+func (e *hugoBuilderErrState) buildErr() error {
+	e.mu.Lock()
+	defer e.mu.Unlock()
+	return e.builderr
 }
 
-func setValueFromFlag(flags *flag.FlagSet, key string, cfg config.Provider, targetKey string, force bool) {
-	key = strings.TrimSpace(key)
-	if (force && flags.Lookup(key) != nil) || flags.Changed(key) {
-		f := flags.Lookup(key)
-		configKey := key
-		if targetKey != "" {
-			configKey = targetKey
-		}
-		// Gotta love this API.
-		switch f.Value.Type() {
-		case "bool":
-			bv, _ := flags.GetBool(key)
-			cfg.Set(configKey, bv)
-		case "string":
-			cfg.Set(configKey, f.Value.String())
-		case "stringSlice":
-			bv, _ := flags.GetStringSlice(key)
-			cfg.Set(configKey, bv)
-		case "int":
-			iv, _ := flags.GetInt(key)
-			cfg.Set(configKey, iv)
-		default:
-			panic(fmt.Sprintf("update switch with %s", f.Value.Type()))
-		}
+func (e *hugoBuilderErrState) setWasErr(w bool) {
+	e.mu.Lock()
+	defer e.mu.Unlock()
+	e.waserr = w
+}
 
-	}
+func (e *hugoBuilderErrState) wasErr() bool {
+	e.mu.Lock()
+	defer e.mu.Unlock()
+	return e.waserr
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) fullBuild(noBuildLock bool) error {
-	var (
-		g         errgroup.Group
-		langCount map[string]uint64
-	)
+func (c *hugoBuilder) errCount() int {
+	return int(c.r.logger.LogCounters().ErrorCounter.Count())
+}
 
-	if !c.h.quiet {
-		fmt.Println("Start building sites … ")
-		fmt.Println(hugo.BuildVersionString())
-		if terminal.IsTerminal(os.Stdout) {
-			defer func() {
-				fmt.Print(showCursor + clearLine)
-			}()
-		}
-	}
+// getDirList provides NewWatcher() with a list of directories to watch for changes.
+func (c *hugoBuilder) getDirList() ([]string, error) {
+	var filenames []string
 
-	copyStaticFunc := func() error {
-		cnt, err := c.copyStatic()
+	walkFn := func(path string, fi hugofs.FileMetaInfo, err error) error {
 		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("Error copying static files: %w", err)
-		}
-		langCount = cnt
-		return nil
-	}
-	buildSitesFunc := func() error {
-		if err := c.buildSites(noBuildLock); err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("Error building site: %w", err)
-		}
-		return nil
-	}
-	// Do not copy static files and build sites in parallel if cleanDestinationDir is enabled.
-	// This flag deletes all static resources in /public folder that are missing in /static,
-	// and it does so at the end of copyStatic() call.
-	if c.Cfg.GetBool("cleanDestinationDir") {
-		if err := copyStaticFunc(); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-		if err := buildSitesFunc(); err != nil {
-			return err
+			c.r.logger.Errorln("walker: ", err)
+			return nil
 		}
-	} else {
-		g.Go(copyStaticFunc)
-		g.Go(buildSitesFunc)
-		if err := g.Wait(); err != nil {
-			return err
+
+		if fi.IsDir() {
+			if fi.Name() == ".git" ||
+				fi.Name() == "node_modules" || fi.Name() == "bower_components" {
+				return filepath.SkipDir
+			}
+
+			filenames = append(filenames, fi.Meta().Filename)
 		}
-	}
 
-	for _, s := range c.hugo().Sites {
-		s.ProcessingStats.Static = langCount[s.Language().Lang]
+		return nil
 	}
 
-	if c.h.gc {
-		count, err := c.hugo().GC()
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
+	watchFiles := c.hugo().PathSpec.BaseFs.WatchDirs()
+	for _, fi := range watchFiles {
+		if !fi.IsDir() {
+			filenames = append(filenames, fi.Meta().Filename)
+			continue
 		}
-		for _, s := range c.hugo().Sites {
-			// We have no way of knowing what site the garbage belonged to.
-			s.ProcessingStats.Cleaned = uint64(count)
+
+		w := hugofs.NewWalkway(hugofs.WalkwayConfig{Logger: c.r.logger, Info: fi, WalkFn: walkFn})
+		if err := w.Walk(); err != nil {
+			c.r.logger.Errorln("walker: ", err)
 		}
 	}
 
-	return nil
+	filenames = helpers.UniqueStringsSorted(filenames)
+
+	return filenames, nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) initCPUProfile() (func(), error) {
-	if c.h.cpuprofile == "" {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) initCPUProfile() (func(), error) {
+	if c.r.cpuprofile == "" {
 		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	f, err := os.Create(c.h.cpuprofile)
+	f, err := os.Create(c.r.cpuprofile)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create CPU profile: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -370,61 +189,23 @@ func (c *commandeer) initCPUProfile() (func(), error) {
 	}, nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) initMemProfile() {
-	if c.h.memprofile == "" {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) initMemProfile() {
+	if c.r.memprofile == "" {
 		return
 	}
 
-	f, err := os.Create(c.h.memprofile)
+	f, err := os.Create(c.r.memprofile)
 	if err != nil {
-		c.logger.Errorf("could not create memory profile: ", err)
+		c.r.logger.Errorf("could not create memory profile: ", err)
 	}
 	defer f.Close()
 	runtime.GC() // get up-to-date statistics
 	if err := pprof.WriteHeapProfile(f); err != nil {
-		c.logger.Errorf("could not write memory profile: ", err)
-	}
-}
-
-func (c *commandeer) initTraceProfile() (func(), error) {
-	if c.h.traceprofile == "" {
-		return nil, nil
-	}
-
-	f, err := os.Create(c.h.traceprofile)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create trace file: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	if err := trace.Start(f); err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to start trace: %w", err)
+		c.r.logger.Errorf("could not write memory profile: ", err)
 	}
-
-	return func() {
-		trace.Stop()
-		f.Close()
-	}, nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) initMutexProfile() (func(), error) {
-	if c.h.mutexprofile == "" {
-		return nil, nil
-	}
-
-	f, err := os.Create(c.h.mutexprofile)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	runtime.SetMutexProfileFraction(1)
-
-	return func() {
-		pprof.Lookup("mutex").WriteTo(f, 0)
-		f.Close()
-	}, nil
-}
-
-func (c *commandeer) initMemTicker() func() {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) initMemTicker() func() {
 	memticker := time.NewTicker(5 * time.Second)
 	quit := make(chan struct{})
 	printMem := func() {
@@ -451,7 +232,25 @@ func (c *commandeer) initMemTicker() func() {
 	}
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) initProfiling() (func(), error) {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) initMutexProfile() (func(), error) {
+	if c.r.mutexprofile == "" {
+		return nil, nil
+	}
+
+	f, err := os.Create(c.r.mutexprofile)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	runtime.SetMutexProfileFraction(1)
+
+	return func() {
+		pprof.Lookup("mutex").WriteTo(f, 0)
+		f.Close()
+	}, nil
+}
+
+func (c *hugoBuilder) initProfiling() (func(), error) {
 	stopCPUProf, err := c.initCPUProfile()
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -468,7 +267,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) initProfiling() (func(), error) {
 	}
 
 	var stopMemTicker func()
-	if c.h.printm {
+	if c.r.printm {
 		stopMemTicker = c.initMemTicker()
 	}
 
@@ -492,68 +291,97 @@ func (c *commandeer) initProfiling() (func(), error) {
 	}, nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) build() error {
-	stopProfiling, err := c.initProfiling()
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
+func (c *hugoBuilder) initTraceProfile() (func(), error) {
+	if c.r.traceprofile == "" {
+		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	defer func() {
-		if stopProfiling != nil {
-			stopProfiling()
-		}
-	}()
+	f, err := os.Create(c.r.traceprofile)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create trace file: %w", err)
+	}
 
-	if err := c.fullBuild(false); err != nil {
-		return err
+	if err := trace.Start(f); err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to start trace: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	if !c.h.quiet {
-		fmt.Println()
-		c.hugo().PrintProcessingStats(os.Stdout)
-		fmt.Println()
+	return func() {
+		trace.Stop()
+		f.Close()
+	}, nil
+}
 
-		hugofs.WalkFilesystems(c.publishDirFs, func(fs afero.Fs) bool {
-			if dfs, ok := fs.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter); ok {
-				dupes := dfs.ReportDuplicates()
-				if dupes != "" {
-					c.logger.Warnln("Duplicate target paths:", dupes)
-				}
-			}
-			return false
-		})
+// newWatcher creates a new watcher to watch filesystem events.
+func (c *hugoBuilder) newWatcher(pollIntervalStr string, dirList ...string) (*watcher.Batcher, error) {
+	staticSyncer := &staticSyncer{c: c}
 
-		unusedTemplates := c.hugo().Tmpl().(tpl.UnusedTemplatesProvider).UnusedTemplates()
-		for _, unusedTemplate := range unusedTemplates {
-			c.logger.Warnf("Template %s is unused, source file %s", unusedTemplate.Name(), unusedTemplate.Filename())
+	var pollInterval time.Duration
+	poll := pollIntervalStr != ""
+	if poll {
+		pollInterval, err := types.ToDurationE(pollIntervalStr)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid value for flag poll: %s", err)
 		}
+		c.r.logger.Printf("Use watcher with poll interval %v", pollInterval)
 	}
 
-	if c.h.buildWatch {
-		watchDirs, err := c.getDirList()
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
+	if pollInterval == 0 {
+		pollInterval = 500 * time.Millisecond
+	}
 
-		baseWatchDir := c.Cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-		rootWatchDirs := getRootWatchDirsStr(baseWatchDir, watchDirs)
+	watcher, err := watcher.New(500*time.Millisecond, pollInterval, poll)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 
-		c.logger.Printf("Watching for changes in %s%s{%s}\n", baseWatchDir, helpers.FilePathSeparator, rootWatchDirs)
-		c.logger.Println("Press Ctrl+C to stop")
-		watcher, err := c.newWatcher(c.h.poll, watchDirs...)
-		checkErr(c.Logger, err)
-		defer watcher.Close()
+	spec := c.hugo().Deps.SourceSpec
+
+	for _, d := range dirList {
+		if d != "" {
+			if spec.IgnoreFile(d) {
+				continue
+			}
+			_ = watcher.Add(d)
+		}
+	}
 
-		sigs := make(chan os.Signal, 1)
-		signal.Notify(sigs, syscall.SIGINT, syscall.SIGTERM)
+	// Identifies changes to config (config.toml) files.
+	configSet := make(map[string]bool)
+	configFiles := c.conf().configs.LoadingInfo.ConfigFiles
 
-		<-sigs
+	c.r.logger.Println("Watching for config changes in", strings.Join(configFiles, ", "))
+	for _, configFile := range configFiles {
+		watcher.Add(configFile)
+		configSet[configFile] = true
 	}
 
-	return nil
+	go func() {
+		for {
+			select {
+			case evs := <-watcher.Events:
+				unlock, err := c.hugo().LockBuild()
+				if err != nil {
+					c.r.logger.Errorln("Failed to acquire a build lock: %s", err)
+					return
+				}
+				c.handleEvents(watcher, staticSyncer, evs, configSet)
+				if c.showErrorInBrowser && c.errCount() > 0 {
+					// Need to reload browser to show the error
+					livereload.ForceRefresh()
+				}
+				unlock()
+			case err := <-watcher.Errors():
+				if err != nil && !herrors.IsNotExist(err) {
+					c.r.logger.Errorln("Error while watching:", err)
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}()
+
+	return watcher, nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) serverBuild() error {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) build() error {
 	stopProfiling, err := c.initProfiling()
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -569,17 +397,20 @@ func (c *commandeer) serverBuild() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	// TODO(bep) Feedback?
-	if !c.h.quiet {
-		fmt.Println()
+	if !c.r.quiet {
+		c.r.Println()
 		c.hugo().PrintProcessingStats(os.Stdout)
-		fmt.Println()
+		c.r.Println()
 	}
 
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) copyStatic() (map[string]uint64, error) {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) buildSites(noBuildLock bool) (err error) {
+	return c.hugo().Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{NoBuildLock: noBuildLock})
+}
+
+func (c *hugoBuilder) copyStatic() (map[string]uint64, error) {
 	m, err := c.doWithPublishDirs(c.copyStaticTo)
 	if err == nil || herrors.IsNotExist(err) {
 		return m, nil
@@ -587,61 +418,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) copyStatic() (map[string]uint64, error) {
 	return m, err
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) doWithPublishDirs(f func(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error)) (map[string]uint64, error) {
-	langCount := make(map[string]uint64)
-
-	staticFilesystems := c.hugo().BaseFs.SourceFilesystems.Static
-
-	if len(staticFilesystems) == 0 {
-		c.logger.Infoln("No static directories found to sync")
-		return langCount, nil
-	}
-
-	for lang, fs := range staticFilesystems {
-		cnt, err := f(fs)
-		if err != nil {
-			return langCount, err
-		}
-
-		if lang == "" {
-			// Not multihost
-			for _, l := range c.languages {
-				langCount[l.Lang] = cnt
-			}
-		} else {
-			langCount[lang] = cnt
-		}
-	}
-
-	return langCount, nil
-}
-
-type countingStatFs struct {
-	afero.Fs
-	statCounter uint64
-}
-
-func (fs *countingStatFs) Stat(name string) (os.FileInfo, error) {
-	f, err := fs.Fs.Stat(name)
-	if err == nil {
-		if !f.IsDir() {
-			atomic.AddUint64(&fs.statCounter, 1)
-		}
-	}
-	return f, err
-}
-
-func chmodFilter(dst, src os.FileInfo) bool {
-	// Hugo publishes data from multiple sources, potentially
-	// with overlapping directory structures. We cannot sync permissions
-	// for directories as that would mean that we might end up with write-protected
-	// directories inside /public.
-	// One example of this would be syncing from the Go Module cache,
-	// which have 0555 directories.
-	return src.IsDir()
-}
-
-func (c *commandeer) copyStaticTo(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error) {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) copyStaticTo(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error) {
 	publishDir := helpers.FilePathSeparator
 
 	if sourceFs.PublishFolder != "" {
@@ -651,23 +428,23 @@ func (c *commandeer) copyStaticTo(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint6
 	fs := &countingStatFs{Fs: sourceFs.Fs}
 
 	syncer := fsync.NewSyncer()
-	syncer.NoTimes = c.Cfg.GetBool("noTimes")
-	syncer.NoChmod = c.Cfg.GetBool("noChmod")
+	syncer.NoTimes = c.conf().configs.Base.NoTimes
+	syncer.NoChmod = c.conf().configs.Base.NoChmod
 	syncer.ChmodFilter = chmodFilter
 	syncer.SrcFs = fs
-	syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.PublishDirStatic
+	syncer.DestFs = c.conf().fs.PublishDirStatic
 	// Now that we are using a unionFs for the static directories
 	// We can effectively clean the publishDir on initial sync
-	syncer.Delete = c.Cfg.GetBool("cleanDestinationDir")
+	syncer.Delete = c.conf().configs.Base.CleanDestinationDir
 
 	if syncer.Delete {
-		c.logger.Infoln("removing all files from destination that don't exist in static dirs")
+		c.r.logger.Infoln("removing all files from destination that don't exist in static dirs")
 
 		syncer.DeleteFilter = func(f os.FileInfo) bool {
 			return f.IsDir() && strings.HasPrefix(f.Name(), ".")
 		}
 	}
-	c.logger.Infoln("syncing static files to", publishDir)
+	c.r.logger.Infoln("syncing static files to", publishDir)
 
 	// because we are using a baseFs (to get the union right).
 	// set sync src to root
@@ -682,106 +459,101 @@ func (c *commandeer) copyStaticTo(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint6
 	return numFiles, err
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) firstPathSpec() *helpers.PathSpec {
-	return c.hugo().Sites[0].PathSpec
-}
+func (c *hugoBuilder) doWithPublishDirs(f func(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error)) (map[string]uint64, error) {
+	langCount := make(map[string]uint64)
 
-func (c *commandeer) timeTrack(start time.Time, name string) {
-	// Note the use of time.Since here and time.Now in the callers.
-	// We have a htime.Sinnce, but that may be adjusted to the future,
-	// and that does not make sense here, esp. when used before the
-	// global Clock is initialized.
-	elapsed := time.Since(start)
-	c.logger.Printf("%s in %v ms", name, int(1000*elapsed.Seconds()))
-}
+	staticFilesystems := c.hugo().BaseFs.SourceFilesystems.Static
 
-// getDirList provides NewWatcher() with a list of directories to watch for changes.
-func (c *commandeer) getDirList() ([]string, error) {
-	var filenames []string
+	if len(staticFilesystems) == 0 {
+		c.r.logger.Infoln("No static directories found to sync")
+		return langCount, nil
+	}
 
-	walkFn := func(path string, fi hugofs.FileMetaInfo, err error) error {
+	for lang, fs := range staticFilesystems {
+		cnt, err := f(fs)
 		if err != nil {
-			c.logger.Errorln("walker: ", err)
-			return nil
+			return langCount, err
 		}
-
-		if fi.IsDir() {
-			if fi.Name() == ".git" ||
-				fi.Name() == "node_modules" || fi.Name() == "bower_components" {
-				return filepath.SkipDir
+		if lang == "" {
+			// Not multihost
+			for _, l := range c.conf().configs.Languages {
+				langCount[l.Lang] = cnt
 			}
-
-			filenames = append(filenames, fi.Meta().Filename)
-		}
-
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	watchFiles := c.hugo().PathSpec.BaseFs.WatchDirs()
-	for _, fi := range watchFiles {
-		if !fi.IsDir() {
-			filenames = append(filenames, fi.Meta().Filename)
-			continue
-		}
-
-		w := hugofs.NewWalkway(hugofs.WalkwayConfig{Logger: c.logger, Info: fi, WalkFn: walkFn})
-		if err := w.Walk(); err != nil {
-			c.logger.Errorln("walker: ", err)
+		} else {
+			langCount[lang] = cnt
 		}
 	}
 
-	filenames = helpers.UniqueStringsSorted(filenames)
-
-	return filenames, nil
+	return langCount, nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) buildSites(noBuildLock bool) (err error) {
-	return c.hugo().Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{NoBuildLock: noBuildLock})
-}
+func (c *hugoBuilder) fullBuild(noBuildLock bool) error {
+	var (
+		g         errgroup.Group
+		langCount map[string]uint64
+	)
 
-func (c *commandeer) handleBuildErr(err error, msg string) {
-	c.buildErr = err
-	c.logger.Errorln(msg + ": " + cleanErrorLog(err.Error()))
-}
+	if !c.r.quiet {
+		fmt.Println("Start building sites … ")
+		fmt.Println(hugo.BuildVersionString())
+		if terminal.IsTerminal(os.Stdout) {
+			defer func() {
+				fmt.Print(showCursor + clearLine)
+			}()
+		}
+	}
 
-func (c *commandeer) rebuildSites(events []fsnotify.Event) error {
-	if c.buildErr != nil {
-		ferrs := herrors.UnwrapFileErrorsWithErrorContext(c.buildErr)
-		for _, err := range ferrs {
-			events = append(events, fsnotify.Event{Name: err.Position().Filename, Op: fsnotify.Write})
+	copyStaticFunc := func() error {
+		cnt, err := c.copyStatic()
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("error copying static files: %w", err)
+		}
+		langCount = cnt
+		return nil
+	}
+	buildSitesFunc := func() error {
+		if err := c.buildSites(noBuildLock); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("error building site: %w", err)
 		}
+		return nil
 	}
-	c.buildErr = nil
-	visited := c.visitedURLs.PeekAllSet()
-	if c.fastRenderMode {
-		// Make sure we always render the home pages
-		for _, l := range c.languages {
-			langPath := c.hugo().PathSpec.GetLangSubDir(l.Lang)
-			if langPath != "" {
-				langPath = langPath + "/"
-			}
-			home := c.hugo().PathSpec.PrependBasePath("/"+langPath, false)
-			visited[home] = true
+	// Do not copy static files and build sites in parallel if cleanDestinationDir is enabled.
+	// This flag deletes all static resources in /public folder that are missing in /static,
+	// and it does so at the end of copyStatic() call.
+	if c.conf().configs.Base.CleanDestinationDir {
+		if err := copyStaticFunc(); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if err := buildSitesFunc(); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	} else {
+		g.Go(copyStaticFunc)
+		g.Go(buildSitesFunc)
+		if err := g.Wait(); err != nil {
+			return err
 		}
 	}
-	return c.hugo().Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{NoBuildLock: true, RecentlyVisited: visited, ErrRecovery: c.wasError}, events...)
-}
 
-func (c *commandeer) partialReRender(urls ...string) error {
-	defer func() {
-		c.wasError = false
-	}()
-	c.buildErr = nil
-	visited := make(map[string]bool)
-	for _, url := range urls {
-		visited[url] = true
+	for _, s := range c.hugo().Sites {
+		s.ProcessingStats.Static = langCount[s.Language().Lang]
+	}
+
+	if c.r.gc {
+		count, err := c.hugo().GC()
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		for _, s := range c.hugo().Sites {
+			// We have no way of knowing what site the garbage belonged to.
+			s.ProcessingStats.Cleaned = uint64(count)
+		}
 	}
 
-	// Note: We do not set NoBuildLock as the file lock is not acquired at this stage.
-	return c.hugo().Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{NoBuildLock: false, RecentlyVisited: visited, PartialReRender: true, ErrRecovery: c.wasError})
+	return nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) fullRebuild(changeType string) {
+func (c *hugoBuilder) fullRebuild(changeType string) {
 	if changeType == configChangeGoMod {
 		// go.mod may be changed during the build itself, and
 		// we really want to prevent superfluous builds.
@@ -799,142 +571,50 @@ func (c *commandeer) fullRebuild(changeType string) {
 		c.printChangeDetected(changeType)
 
 		defer func() {
-			// Allow any file system events to arrive back.
+			// Allow any file system events to arrive basimplecobra.
 			// This will block any rebuild on config changes for the
 			// duration of the sleep.
 			time.Sleep(2 * time.Second)
 		}()
 
-		defer c.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Rebuilt")
+		defer c.r.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Rebuilt")
 
-		c.commandeerHugoState = newCommandeerHugoState()
-		err := c.loadConfig()
+		err := c.reloadConfig()
 		if err != nil {
 			// Set the processing on pause until the state is recovered.
-			c.paused = true
+			c.errState.setPaused(true)
 			c.handleBuildErr(err, "Failed to reload config")
-
 		} else {
-			c.paused = false
+			c.errState.setPaused(false)
 		}
 
-		if !c.paused {
+		if !c.errState.isPaused() {
 			_, err := c.copyStatic()
 			if err != nil {
-				c.logger.Errorln(err)
+				c.r.logger.Errorln(err)
 				return
 			}
-
-			err = c.buildSites(true)
+			err = c.buildSites(false)
 			if err != nil {
-				c.logger.Errorln(err)
-			} else if !c.h.buildWatch && !c.Cfg.GetBool("disableLiveReload") {
+				c.r.logger.Errorln(err)
+			} else if c.s != nil && c.s.doLiveReload {
 				livereload.ForceRefresh()
 			}
 		}
 	}()
 }
 
-// newWatcher creates a new watcher to watch filesystem events.
-func (c *commandeer) newWatcher(pollIntervalStr string, dirList ...string) (*watcher.Batcher, error) {
-	if runtime.GOOS == "darwin" {
-		tweakLimit()
-	}
-
-	staticSyncer, err := newStaticSyncer(c)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	var pollInterval time.Duration
-	poll := pollIntervalStr != ""
-	if poll {
-		pollInterval, err = types.ToDurationE(pollIntervalStr)
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid value for flag poll: %s", err)
-		}
-		c.logger.Printf("Use watcher with poll interval %v", pollInterval)
-	}
-
-	if pollInterval == 0 {
-		pollInterval = 500 * time.Millisecond
-	}
-
-	watcher, err := watcher.New(500*time.Millisecond, pollInterval, poll)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	spec := c.hugo().Deps.SourceSpec
-
-	for _, d := range dirList {
-		if d != "" {
-			if spec.IgnoreFile(d) {
-				continue
-			}
-			_ = watcher.Add(d)
-		}
-	}
-
-	// Identifies changes to config (config.toml) files.
-	configSet := make(map[string]bool)
-
-	c.logger.Println("Watching for config changes in", strings.Join(c.configFiles, ", "))
-	for _, configFile := range c.configFiles {
-		watcher.Add(configFile)
-		configSet[configFile] = true
-	}
-
-	go func() {
-		for {
-			select {
-			case evs := <-watcher.Events:
-				unlock, err := c.buildLock()
-				if err != nil {
-					c.logger.Errorln("Failed to acquire a build lock: %s", err)
-					return
-				}
-				c.handleEvents(watcher, staticSyncer, evs, configSet)
-				if c.showErrorInBrowser && c.errCount() > 0 {
-					// Need to reload browser to show the error
-					livereload.ForceRefresh()
-				}
-				unlock()
-			case err := <-watcher.Errors():
-				if err != nil && !herrors.IsNotExist(err) {
-					c.logger.Errorln("Error while watching:", err)
-				}
-			}
-		}
-	}()
-
-	return watcher, nil
-}
-
-func (c *commandeer) printChangeDetected(typ string) {
-	msg := "\nChange"
-	if typ != "" {
-		msg += " of " + typ
-	}
-	msg += " detected, rebuilding site."
-
-	c.logger.Println(msg)
-	const layout = "2006-01-02 15:04:05.000 -0700"
-	c.logger.Println(htime.Now().Format(layout))
+func (c *hugoBuilder) handleBuildErr(err error, msg string) {
+	c.errState.setBuildErr(err)
+	c.r.logger.Errorln(msg + ": " + cleanErrorLog(err.Error()))
 }
 
-const (
-	configChangeConfig = "config file"
-	configChangeGoMod  = "go.mod file"
-	configChangeGoWork = "go work file"
-)
-
-func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
+func (c *hugoBuilder) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 	staticSyncer *staticSyncer,
 	evs []fsnotify.Event,
 	configSet map[string]bool) {
 	defer func() {
-		c.wasError = false
+		c.errState.setWasErr(false)
 	}()
 
 	var isHandled bool
@@ -966,7 +646,8 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 			}
 
 			if ev.Op&fsnotify.Remove == fsnotify.Remove || ev.Op&fsnotify.Rename == fsnotify.Rename {
-				for _, configFile := range c.configFiles {
+				configFiles := c.conf().configs.LoadingInfo.ConfigFiles
+				for _, configFile := range configFiles {
 					counter := 0
 					for watcher.Add(configFile) != nil {
 						counter++
@@ -989,7 +670,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 		return
 	}
 
-	if c.paused {
+	if c.errState.isPaused() {
 		// Wait for the server to get into a consistent state before
 		// we continue with processing.
 		return
@@ -1004,7 +685,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 		return
 	}
 
-	c.logger.Infoln("Received System Events:", evs)
+	c.r.logger.Infoln("Received System Events:", evs)
 
 	staticEvents := []fsnotify.Event{}
 	dynamicEvents := []fsnotify.Event{}
@@ -1086,7 +767,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 
 		walkAdder := func(path string, f hugofs.FileMetaInfo, err error) error {
 			if f.IsDir() {
-				c.logger.Println("adding created directory to watchlist", path)
+				c.r.logger.Println("adding created directory to watchlist", path)
 				if err := watcher.Add(path); err != nil {
 					return err
 				}
@@ -1102,8 +783,8 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 		// recursively add new directories to watch list
 		// When mkdir -p is used, only the top directory triggers an event (at least on OSX)
 		if ev.Op&fsnotify.Create == fsnotify.Create {
-			if s, err := c.Fs.Source.Stat(ev.Name); err == nil && s.Mode().IsDir() {
-				_ = helpers.SymbolicWalk(c.Fs.Source, ev.Name, walkAdder)
+			if s, err := c.conf().fs.Source.Stat(ev.Name); err == nil && s.Mode().IsDir() {
+				_ = helpers.SymbolicWalk(c.conf().fs.Source, ev.Name, walkAdder)
 			}
 		}
 
@@ -1117,28 +798,29 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 	if len(staticEvents) > 0 {
 		c.printChangeDetected("Static files")
 
-		if c.Cfg.GetBool("forceSyncStatic") {
-			c.logger.Printf("Syncing all static files\n")
+		if c.r.forceSyncStatic {
+			c.r.logger.Printf("Syncing all static files\n")
 			_, err := c.copyStatic()
 			if err != nil {
-				c.logger.Errorln("Error copying static files to publish dir:", err)
+				c.r.logger.Errorln("Error copying static files to publish dir:", err)
 				return
 			}
 		} else {
 			if err := staticSyncer.syncsStaticEvents(staticEvents); err != nil {
-				c.logger.Errorln("Error syncing static files to publish dir:", err)
+				c.r.logger.Errorln("Error syncing static files to publish dir:", err)
 				return
 			}
 		}
 
-		if !c.h.buildWatch && !c.Cfg.GetBool("disableLiveReload") {
+		if c.s != nil && c.s.doLiveReload {
 			// Will block forever trying to write to a channel that nobody is reading if livereload isn't initialized
 
 			// force refresh when more than one file
-			if !c.wasError && len(staticEvents) == 1 {
+			if !c.errState.wasErr() && len(staticEvents) == 1 {
 				ev := staticEvents[0]
-				path := c.hugo().BaseFs.SourceFilesystems.MakeStaticPathRelative(ev.Name)
-				path = c.firstPathSpec().RelURL(helpers.ToSlashTrimLeading(path), false)
+				h := c.hugo()
+				path := h.BaseFs.SourceFilesystems.MakeStaticPathRelative(ev.Name)
+				path = h.RelURL(helpers.ToSlashTrimLeading(path), false)
 
 				livereload.RefreshPath(path)
 			} else {
@@ -1149,25 +831,24 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 
 	if len(dynamicEvents) > 0 {
 		partitionedEvents := partitionDynamicEvents(
-			c.firstPathSpec().BaseFs.SourceFilesystems,
+			c.hugo().BaseFs.SourceFilesystems,
 			dynamicEvents)
 
-		doLiveReload := !c.h.buildWatch && !c.Cfg.GetBool("disableLiveReload")
 		onePageName := pickOneWriteOrCreatePath(partitionedEvents.ContentEvents)
 
 		c.printChangeDetected("")
 		c.changeDetector.PrepareNew()
 
 		func() {
-			defer c.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Total")
+			defer c.r.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Total")
 			if err := c.rebuildSites(dynamicEvents); err != nil {
 				c.handleBuildErr(err, "Rebuild failed")
 			}
 		}()
 
-		if doLiveReload {
+		if c.s != nil && c.s.doLiveReload {
 			if len(partitionedEvents.ContentEvents) == 0 && len(partitionedEvents.AssetEvents) > 0 {
-				if c.wasError {
+				if c.errState.wasErr() {
 					livereload.ForceRefresh()
 					return
 				}
@@ -1176,7 +857,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 					// Nothing has changed.
 					return
 				} else if len(changed) == 1 {
-					pathToRefresh := c.firstPathSpec().RelURL(helpers.ToSlashTrimLeading(changed[0]), false)
+					pathToRefresh := c.hugo().PathSpec.RelURL(helpers.ToSlashTrimLeading(changed[0]), false)
 					livereload.RefreshPath(pathToRefresh)
 				} else {
 					livereload.ForceRefresh()
@@ -1184,8 +865,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 			}
 
 			if len(partitionedEvents.ContentEvents) > 0 {
-
-				navigate := c.Cfg.GetBool("navigateToChanged")
+				navigate := c.s != nil && c.s.navigateToChanged
 				// We have fetched the same page above, but it may have
 				// changed.
 				var p page.Page
@@ -1206,54 +886,108 @@ func (c *commandeer) handleEvents(watcher *watcher.Batcher,
 	}
 }
 
-// dynamicEvents contains events that is considered dynamic, as in "not static".
-// Both of these categories will trigger a new build, but the asset events
-// does not fit into the "navigate to changed" logic.
-type dynamicEvents struct {
-	ContentEvents []fsnotify.Event
-	AssetEvents   []fsnotify.Event
+func (c *hugoBuilder) hugo() *hugolib.HugoSites {
+	h, err := c.r.HugFromConfig(c.conf())
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	if c.s != nil {
+		// A running server, register the media types.
+		for _, s := range h.Sites {
+			s.RegisterMediaTypes()
+		}
+	}
+	return h
+}
+
+func (c *hugoBuilder) hugoTry() *hugolib.HugoSites {
+	h, _ := c.r.HugFromConfig(c.conf())
+	return h
 }
 
-func partitionDynamicEvents(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystems, events []fsnotify.Event) (de dynamicEvents) {
-	for _, e := range events {
-		if sourceFs.IsAsset(e.Name) {
-			de.AssetEvents = append(de.AssetEvents, e)
-		} else {
-			de.ContentEvents = append(de.ContentEvents, e)
+func (c *hugoBuilder) loadConfig(cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, running bool) error {
+	cfg := config.New()
+	cfg.Set("renderToDisk", (c.s == nil && !c.r.renderToMemory) || (c.s != nil && c.s.renderToDisk))
+	watch := c.r.buildWatch || (c.s != nil && c.s.serverWatch)
+	cfg.Set("environment", c.r.environment)
+
+	cfg.Set("internal", maps.Params{
+		"running": running,
+		"watch":   watch,
+		"verbose": c.r.verbose,
+	})
+
+	conf, err := c.r.ConfigFromProvider(c.r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, cfg))
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	c.setConf(conf)
+	if c.onConfigLoaded != nil {
+		if err := c.onConfigLoaded(false); err != nil {
+			return err
 		}
 	}
-	return
+
+	return nil
+
 }
 
-func pickOneWriteOrCreatePath(events []fsnotify.Event) string {
-	name := ""
+func (c *hugoBuilder) printChangeDetected(typ string) {
+	msg := "\nChange"
+	if typ != "" {
+		msg += " of " + typ
+	}
+	msg += " detected, rebuilding site."
 
-	for _, ev := range events {
-		if ev.Op&fsnotify.Write == fsnotify.Write || ev.Op&fsnotify.Create == fsnotify.Create {
-			if files.IsIndexContentFile(ev.Name) {
-				return ev.Name
-			}
+	c.r.logger.Println(msg)
+	const layout = "2006-01-02 15:04:05.000 -0700"
+	c.r.logger.Println(htime.Now().Format(layout))
+}
 
-			if files.IsContentFile(ev.Name) {
-				name = ev.Name
+func (c *hugoBuilder) rebuildSites(events []fsnotify.Event) error {
+	if err := c.errState.buildErr(); err != nil {
+		ferrs := herrors.UnwrapFileErrorsWithErrorContext(err)
+		for _, err := range ferrs {
+			events = append(events, fsnotify.Event{Name: err.Position().Filename, Op: fsnotify.Write})
+		}
+	}
+	c.errState.setBuildErr(nil)
+	visited := c.visitedURLs.PeekAllSet()
+	h := c.hugo()
+	if c.fastRenderMode {
+		// Make sure we always render the home pages
+		for _, l := range c.conf().configs.Languages {
+			langPath := h.GetLangSubDir(l.Lang)
+			if langPath != "" {
+				langPath = langPath + "/"
 			}
-
+			home := h.PrependBasePath("/"+langPath, false)
+			visited[home] = true
 		}
 	}
-
-	return name
+	return h.Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{NoBuildLock: true, RecentlyVisited: visited, ErrRecovery: c.errState.wasErr()}, events...)
 }
 
-func formatByteCount(b uint64) string {
-	const unit = 1000
-	if b < unit {
-		return fmt.Sprintf("%d B", b)
+func (c *hugoBuilder) reloadConfig() error {
+	c.r.Reset()
+	c.r.configVersionID.Add(1)
+	oldConf := c.conf()
+	conf, err := c.r.ConfigFromConfig(c.r.configVersionID.Load(), c.conf())
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	sameLen := len(oldConf.configs.Languages) == len(conf.configs.Languages)
+	if !sameLen {
+		if oldConf.configs.IsMultihost || conf.configs.IsMultihost {
+			return errors.New("multihost change detected, please restart server")
+		}
 	}
-	div, exp := int64(unit), 0
-	for n := b / unit; n >= unit; n /= unit {
-		div *= unit
-		exp++
+	c.setConf(conf)
+	if c.onConfigLoaded != nil {
+		if err := c.onConfigLoaded(true); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
 	}
-	return fmt.Sprintf("%.1f %cB",
-		float64(b)/float64(div), "kMGTPE"[exp])
+
+	return nil
 }
diff --git a/commands/import_jekyll.go b/commands/import.go
index 93991121d..20d23dfac 100644
--- a/commands/import_jekyll.go
+++ b/commands/import.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -15,160 +15,139 @@ package commands
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"regexp"
+
+	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
+
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 	"unicode"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/pageparser"
-
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugio"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/pageparser"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*importCmd)(nil)
-
-type importCmd struct {
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-func newImportCmd() *importCmd {
-	cc := &importCmd{}
-
-	cc.baseCmd = newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "import",
-		Short: "Import your site from others.",
-		Long: `Import your site from other web site generators like Jekyll.
-
-Import requires a subcommand, e.g. ` + "`hugo import jekyll jekyll_root_path target_path`.",
-		RunE: nil,
-	})
-
-	importJekyllCmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "jekyll",
-		Short: "hugo import from Jekyll",
-		Long: `hugo import from Jekyll.
-
+func newImportCommand() *importCommand {
+	var c *importCommand
+	c = &importCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "jekyll",
+				short: "hugo import from Jekyll",
+				long: `hugo import from Jekyll.
+		
 Import from Jekyll requires two paths, e.g. ` + "`hugo import jekyll jekyll_root_path target_path`.",
-		RunE: cc.importFromJekyll,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					if len(args) < 2 {
+						return newUserError(`import from jekyll requires two paths, e.g. ` + "`hugo import jekyll jekyll_root_path target_path`.")
+					}
+					return c.importFromJekyll(args)
+				},
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+					cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.force, "force", false, "allow import into non-empty target directory")
+				},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
-	importJekyllCmd.Flags().Bool("force", false, "allow import into non-empty target directory")
-
-	cc.cmd.AddCommand(importJekyllCmd)
+	return c
 
-	return cc
 }
 
-func (i *importCmd) importFromJekyll(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-	if len(args) < 2 {
-		return newUserError(`import from jekyll requires two paths, e.g. ` + "`hugo import jekyll jekyll_root_path target_path`.")
-	}
-
-	jekyllRoot, err := filepath.Abs(filepath.Clean(args[0]))
-	if err != nil {
-		return newUserError("path error:", args[0])
-	}
+type importCommand struct {
+	r *rootCommand
 
-	targetDir, err := filepath.Abs(filepath.Clean(args[1]))
-	if err != nil {
-		return newUserError("path error:", args[1])
-	}
+	force bool
 
-	jww.INFO.Println("Import Jekyll from:", jekyllRoot, "to:", targetDir)
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+}
 
-	if strings.HasPrefix(filepath.Dir(targetDir), jekyllRoot) {
-		return newUserError("abort: target path should not be inside the Jekyll root")
-	}
+func (c *importCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
 
-	forceImport, _ := cmd.Flags().GetBool("force")
+func (c *importCommand) Name() string {
+	return "import"
+}
 
-	fs := afero.NewOsFs()
-	jekyllPostDirs, hasAnyPost := i.getJekyllDirInfo(fs, jekyllRoot)
-	if !hasAnyPost {
-		return errors.New("abort: jekyll root contains neither posts nor drafts")
-	}
+func (c *importCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	return nil
+}
 
-	err = i.createSiteFromJekyll(jekyllRoot, targetDir, jekyllPostDirs, forceImport)
+func (c *importCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Import your site from others."
+	cmd.Long = `Import your site from other web site generators like Jekyll.
 
-	if err != nil {
-		return newUserError(err)
-	}
+Import requires a subcommand, e.g. ` + "`hugo import jekyll jekyll_root_path target_path`."
 
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Importing...")
+	return nil
+}
 
-	fileCount := 0
-	callback := func(path string, fi hugofs.FileMetaInfo, err error) error {
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
+func (c *importCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.r = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	return nil
+}
 
-		if fi.IsDir() {
-			return nil
-		}
+func (i *importCommand) createConfigFromJekyll(fs afero.Fs, inpath string, kind metadecoders.Format, jekyllConfig map[string]any) (err error) {
+	title := "My New Hugo Site"
+	baseURL := "http://example.org/"
 
-		relPath, err := filepath.Rel(jekyllRoot, path)
-		if err != nil {
-			return newUserError("get rel path error:", path)
-		}
+	for key, value := range jekyllConfig {
+		lowerKey := strings.ToLower(key)
 
-		relPath = filepath.ToSlash(relPath)
-		draft := false
+		switch lowerKey {
+		case "title":
+			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
+				title = str
+			}
 
-		switch {
-		case strings.Contains(relPath, "_posts/"):
-			relPath = filepath.Join("content/post", strings.Replace(relPath, "_posts/", "", -1))
-		case strings.Contains(relPath, "_drafts/"):
-			relPath = filepath.Join("content/draft", strings.Replace(relPath, "_drafts/", "", -1))
-			draft = true
-		default:
-			return nil
+		case "url":
+			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
+				baseURL = str
+			}
 		}
-
-		fileCount++
-		return convertJekyllPost(path, relPath, targetDir, draft)
 	}
 
-	for jekyllPostDir, hasAnyPostInDir := range jekyllPostDirs {
-		if hasAnyPostInDir {
-			if err = helpers.SymbolicWalk(hugofs.Os, filepath.Join(jekyllRoot, jekyllPostDir), callback); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-		}
+	in := map[string]any{
+		"baseURL":            baseURL,
+		"title":              title,
+		"languageCode":       "en-us",
+		"disablePathToLower": true,
 	}
 
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Congratulations!", fileCount, "post(s) imported!")
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Now, start Hugo by yourself:\n" +
-		"$ git clone https://github.com/spf13/herring-cove.git " + args[1] + "/themes/herring-cove")
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println("$ cd " + args[1] + "\n$ hugo server --theme=herring-cove")
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+	err = parser.InterfaceToConfig(in, kind, &buf)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
 
-	return nil
+	return helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(inpath, "hugo."+string(kind)), &buf, fs)
 }
 
-func (i *importCmd) getJekyllDirInfo(fs afero.Fs, jekyllRoot string) (map[string]bool, bool) {
+func (c *importCommand) getJekyllDirInfo(fs afero.Fs, jekyllRoot string) (map[string]bool, bool) {
 	postDirs := make(map[string]bool)
 	hasAnyPost := false
 	if entries, err := os.ReadDir(jekyllRoot); err == nil {
 		for _, entry := range entries {
 			if entry.IsDir() {
 				subDir := filepath.Join(jekyllRoot, entry.Name())
-				if isPostDir, hasAnyPostInDir := i.retrieveJekyllPostDir(fs, subDir); isPostDir {
+				if isPostDir, hasAnyPostInDir := c.retrieveJekyllPostDir(fs, subDir); isPostDir {
 					postDirs[entry.Name()] = hasAnyPostInDir
 					if hasAnyPostInDir {
 						hasAnyPost = true
@@ -180,27 +159,7 @@ func (i *importCmd) getJekyllDirInfo(fs afero.Fs, jekyllRoot string) (map[string
 	return postDirs, hasAnyPost
 }
 
-func (i *importCmd) retrieveJekyllPostDir(fs afero.Fs, dir string) (bool, bool) {
-	if strings.HasSuffix(dir, "_posts") || strings.HasSuffix(dir, "_drafts") {
-		isEmpty, _ := helpers.IsEmpty(dir, fs)
-		return true, !isEmpty
-	}
-
-	if entries, err := os.ReadDir(dir); err == nil {
-		for _, entry := range entries {
-			if entry.IsDir() {
-				subDir := filepath.Join(dir, entry.Name())
-				if isPostDir, hasAnyPost := i.retrieveJekyllPostDir(fs, subDir); isPostDir {
-					return isPostDir, hasAnyPost
-				}
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	return false, true
-}
-
-func (i *importCmd) createSiteFromJekyll(jekyllRoot, targetDir string, jekyllPostDirs map[string]bool, force bool) error {
+func (c *importCommand) createSiteFromJekyll(jekyllRoot, targetDir string, jekyllPostDirs map[string]bool) error {
 	fs := &afero.OsFs{}
 	if exists, _ := helpers.Exists(targetDir, fs); exists {
 		if isDir, _ := helpers.IsDir(targetDir, fs); !isDir {
@@ -209,12 +168,12 @@ func (i *importCmd) createSiteFromJekyll(jekyllRoot, targetDir string, jekyllPos
 
 		isEmpty, _ := helpers.IsEmpty(targetDir, fs)
 
-		if !isEmpty && !force {
+		if !isEmpty && !c.force {
 			return errors.New("target path \"" + targetDir + "\" exists and is not empty")
 		}
 	}
 
-	jekyllConfig := i.loadJekyllConfig(fs, jekyllRoot)
+	jekyllConfig := c.loadJekyllConfig(fs, jekyllRoot)
 
 	mkdir(targetDir, "layouts")
 	mkdir(targetDir, "content")
@@ -223,80 +182,164 @@ func (i *importCmd) createSiteFromJekyll(jekyllRoot, targetDir string, jekyllPos
 	mkdir(targetDir, "data")
 	mkdir(targetDir, "themes")
 
-	i.createConfigFromJekyll(fs, targetDir, "yaml", jekyllConfig)
+	c.createConfigFromJekyll(fs, targetDir, "yaml", jekyllConfig)
 
-	i.copyJekyllFilesAndFolders(jekyllRoot, filepath.Join(targetDir, "static"), jekyllPostDirs)
+	c.copyJekyllFilesAndFolders(jekyllRoot, filepath.Join(targetDir, "static"), jekyllPostDirs)
 
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (i *importCmd) loadJekyllConfig(fs afero.Fs, jekyllRoot string) map[string]any {
-	path := filepath.Join(jekyllRoot, "_config.yml")
+func (c *importCommand) convertJekyllContent(m any, content string) (string, error) {
+	metadata, _ := maps.ToStringMapE(m)
 
-	exists, err := helpers.Exists(path, fs)
+	lines := strings.Split(content, "\n")
+	var resultLines []string
+	for _, line := range lines {
+		resultLines = append(resultLines, strings.Trim(line, "\r\n"))
+	}
 
-	if err != nil || !exists {
-		jww.WARN.Println("_config.yaml not found: Is the specified Jekyll root correct?")
-		return nil
+	content = strings.Join(resultLines, "\n")
+
+	excerptSep := "<!--more-->"
+	if value, ok := metadata["excerpt_separator"]; ok {
+		if str, strOk := value.(string); strOk {
+			content = strings.Replace(content, strings.TrimSpace(str), excerptSep, -1)
+		}
 	}
 
-	f, err := fs.Open(path)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil
+	replaceList := []struct {
+		re      *regexp.Regexp
+		replace string
+	}{
+		{regexp.MustCompile("(?i)<!-- more -->"), "<!--more-->"},
+		{regexp.MustCompile(`\{%\s*raw\s*%\}\s*(.*?)\s*\{%\s*endraw\s*%\}`), "$1"},
+		{regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s*endhighlight\s*%}`), "{{< / highlight >}}"},
 	}
 
-	defer f.Close()
+	for _, replace := range replaceList {
+		content = replace.re.ReplaceAllString(content, replace.replace)
+	}
 
-	b, err := io.ReadAll(f)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil
+	replaceListFunc := []struct {
+		re      *regexp.Regexp
+		replace func(string) string
+	}{
+		// Octopress image tag: http://octopress.org/docs/plugins/image-tag/
+		{regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s+img\s*(.*?)\s*%}`), c.replaceImageTag},
+		{regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s*highlight\s*(.*?)\s*%}`), c.replaceHighlightTag},
 	}
 
-	c, err := metadecoders.Default.UnmarshalToMap(b, metadecoders.YAML)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil
+	for _, replace := range replaceListFunc {
+		content = replace.re.ReplaceAllStringFunc(content, replace.replace)
 	}
 
-	return c
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+	if len(metadata) != 0 {
+		err := parser.InterfaceToFrontMatter(m, metadecoders.YAML, &buf)
+		if err != nil {
+			return "", err
+		}
+	}
+	buf.WriteString(content)
+
+	return buf.String(), nil
 }
 
-func (i *importCmd) createConfigFromJekyll(fs afero.Fs, inpath string, kind metadecoders.Format, jekyllConfig map[string]any) (err error) {
-	title := "My New Hugo Site"
-	baseURL := "http://example.org/"
+func (c *importCommand) convertJekyllMetaData(m any, postName string, postDate time.Time, draft bool) (any, error) {
+	metadata, err := maps.ToStringMapE(m)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 
-	for key, value := range jekyllConfig {
+	if draft {
+		metadata["draft"] = true
+	}
+
+	for key, value := range metadata {
 		lowerKey := strings.ToLower(key)
 
 		switch lowerKey {
-		case "title":
+		case "layout":
+			delete(metadata, key)
+		case "permalink":
 			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
-				title = str
+				metadata["url"] = str
 			}
-
-		case "url":
+			delete(metadata, key)
+		case "category":
 			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
-				baseURL = str
+				metadata["categories"] = []string{str}
 			}
+			delete(metadata, key)
+		case "excerpt_separator":
+			if key != lowerKey {
+				delete(metadata, key)
+				metadata[lowerKey] = value
+			}
+		case "date":
+			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
+				re := regexp.MustCompile(`(\d+):(\d+):(\d+)`)
+				r := re.FindAllStringSubmatch(str, -1)
+				if len(r) > 0 {
+					hour, _ := strconv.Atoi(r[0][1])
+					minute, _ := strconv.Atoi(r[0][2])
+					second, _ := strconv.Atoi(r[0][3])
+					postDate = time.Date(postDate.Year(), postDate.Month(), postDate.Day(), hour, minute, second, 0, time.UTC)
+				}
+			}
+			delete(metadata, key)
 		}
+
 	}
 
-	in := map[string]any{
-		"baseURL":            baseURL,
-		"title":              title,
-		"languageCode":       "en-us",
-		"disablePathToLower": true,
+	metadata["date"] = postDate.Format(time.RFC3339)
+
+	return metadata, nil
+}
+
+func (c *importCommand) convertJekyllPost(path, relPath, targetDir string, draft bool) error {
+	jww.TRACE.Println("Converting", path)
+
+	filename := filepath.Base(path)
+	postDate, postName, err := c.parseJekyllFilename(filename)
+	if err != nil {
+		c.r.Printf("Failed to parse filename '%s': %s. Skipping.", filename, err)
+		return nil
 	}
 
-	var buf bytes.Buffer
-	err = parser.InterfaceToConfig(in, kind, &buf)
+	jww.TRACE.Println(filename, postDate, postName)
+
+	targetFile := filepath.Join(targetDir, relPath)
+	targetParentDir := filepath.Dir(targetFile)
+	os.MkdirAll(targetParentDir, 0777)
+
+	contentBytes, err := os.ReadFile(path)
 	if err != nil {
+		c.r.logger.Errorln("Read file error:", path)
 		return err
 	}
+	pf, err := pageparser.ParseFrontMatterAndContent(bytes.NewReader(contentBytes))
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to parse file %q: %s", filename, err)
+	}
+	newmetadata, err := c.convertJekyllMetaData(pf.FrontMatter, postName, postDate, draft)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to convert metadata for file %q: %s", filename, err)
+	}
+
+	content, err := c.convertJekyllContent(newmetadata, string(pf.Content))
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to convert content for file %q: %s", filename, err)
+	}
 
-	return helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(inpath, "config."+string(kind)), &buf, fs)
+	fs := hugofs.Os
+	if err := helpers.WriteToDisk(targetFile, strings.NewReader(content), fs); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to save file %q: %s", filename, err)
+	}
+	return nil
 }
 
-func (i *importCmd) copyJekyllFilesAndFolders(jekyllRoot, dest string, jekyllPostDirs map[string]bool) (err error) {
+func (c *importCommand) copyJekyllFilesAndFolders(jekyllRoot, dest string, jekyllPostDirs map[string]bool) (err error) {
 	fs := hugofs.Os
 
 	fi, err := fs.Stat(jekyllRoot)
@@ -353,180 +396,133 @@ func (i *importCmd) copyJekyllFilesAndFolders(jekyllRoot, dest string, jekyllPos
 	return nil
 }
 
-func parseJekyllFilename(filename string) (time.Time, string, error) {
-	re := regexp.MustCompile(`(\d+-\d+-\d+)-(.+)\..*`)
-	r := re.FindAllStringSubmatch(filename, -1)
-	if len(r) == 0 {
-		return htime.Now(), "", errors.New("filename not match")
-	}
+func (c *importCommand) importFromJekyll(args []string) error {
 
-	postDate, err := time.Parse("2006-1-2", r[0][1])
+	jekyllRoot, err := filepath.Abs(filepath.Clean(args[0]))
 	if err != nil {
-		return htime.Now(), "", err
+		return newUserError("path error:", args[0])
 	}
 
-	postName := r[0][2]
-
-	return postDate, postName, nil
-}
-
-func convertJekyllPost(path, relPath, targetDir string, draft bool) error {
-	jww.TRACE.Println("Converting", path)
-
-	filename := filepath.Base(path)
-	postDate, postName, err := parseJekyllFilename(filename)
+	targetDir, err := filepath.Abs(filepath.Clean(args[1]))
 	if err != nil {
-		jww.WARN.Printf("Failed to parse filename '%s': %s. Skipping.", filename, err)
-		return nil
+		return newUserError("path error:", args[1])
 	}
 
-	jww.TRACE.Println(filename, postDate, postName)
-
-	targetFile := filepath.Join(targetDir, relPath)
-	targetParentDir := filepath.Dir(targetFile)
-	os.MkdirAll(targetParentDir, 0777)
+	c.r.Println("Import Jekyll from:", jekyllRoot, "to:", targetDir)
 
-	contentBytes, err := os.ReadFile(path)
-	if err != nil {
-		jww.ERROR.Println("Read file error:", path)
-		return err
+	if strings.HasPrefix(filepath.Dir(targetDir), jekyllRoot) {
+		return newUserError("abort: target path should not be inside the Jekyll root")
 	}
 
-	pf, err := pageparser.ParseFrontMatterAndContent(bytes.NewReader(contentBytes))
-	if err != nil {
-		jww.ERROR.Println("Parse file error:", path)
-		return err
+	fs := afero.NewOsFs()
+	jekyllPostDirs, hasAnyPost := c.getJekyllDirInfo(fs, jekyllRoot)
+	if !hasAnyPost {
+		return errors.New("abort: jekyll root contains neither posts nor drafts")
 	}
 
-	newmetadata, err := convertJekyllMetaData(pf.FrontMatter, postName, postDate, draft)
+	err = c.createSiteFromJekyll(jekyllRoot, targetDir, jekyllPostDirs)
 	if err != nil {
-		jww.ERROR.Println("Convert metadata error:", path)
-		return err
+		return newUserError(err)
 	}
 
-	content, err := convertJekyllContent(newmetadata, string(pf.Content))
-	if err != nil {
-		jww.ERROR.Println("Converting Jekyll error:", path)
-		return err
-	}
+	c.r.Println("Importing...")
 
-	fs := hugofs.Os
-	if err := helpers.WriteToDisk(targetFile, strings.NewReader(content), fs); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to save file %q: %s", filename, err)
-	}
+	fileCount := 0
+	callback := func(path string, fi hugofs.FileMetaInfo, err error) error {
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
 
-	return nil
-}
+		if fi.IsDir() {
+			return nil
+		}
 
-func convertJekyllMetaData(m any, postName string, postDate time.Time, draft bool) (any, error) {
-	metadata, err := maps.ToStringMapE(m)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
+		relPath, err := filepath.Rel(jekyllRoot, path)
+		if err != nil {
+			return newUserError("get rel path error:", path)
+		}
 
-	if draft {
-		metadata["draft"] = true
-	}
+		relPath = filepath.ToSlash(relPath)
+		draft := false
 
-	for key, value := range metadata {
-		lowerKey := strings.ToLower(key)
+		switch {
+		case strings.Contains(relPath, "_posts/"):
+			relPath = filepath.Join("content/post", strings.Replace(relPath, "_posts/", "", -1))
+		case strings.Contains(relPath, "_drafts/"):
+			relPath = filepath.Join("content/draft", strings.Replace(relPath, "_drafts/", "", -1))
+			draft = true
+		default:
+			return nil
+		}
 
-		switch lowerKey {
-		case "layout":
-			delete(metadata, key)
-		case "permalink":
-			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
-				metadata["url"] = str
-			}
-			delete(metadata, key)
-		case "category":
-			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
-				metadata["categories"] = []string{str}
-			}
-			delete(metadata, key)
-		case "excerpt_separator":
-			if key != lowerKey {
-				delete(metadata, key)
-				metadata[lowerKey] = value
-			}
-		case "date":
-			if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
-				re := regexp.MustCompile(`(\d+):(\d+):(\d+)`)
-				r := re.FindAllStringSubmatch(str, -1)
-				if len(r) > 0 {
-					hour, _ := strconv.Atoi(r[0][1])
-					minute, _ := strconv.Atoi(r[0][2])
-					second, _ := strconv.Atoi(r[0][3])
-					postDate = time.Date(postDate.Year(), postDate.Month(), postDate.Day(), hour, minute, second, 0, time.UTC)
-				}
+		fileCount++
+		return c.convertJekyllPost(path, relPath, targetDir, draft)
+	}
+
+	for jekyllPostDir, hasAnyPostInDir := range jekyllPostDirs {
+		if hasAnyPostInDir {
+			if err = helpers.SymbolicWalk(hugofs.Os, filepath.Join(jekyllRoot, jekyllPostDir), callback); err != nil {
+				return err
 			}
-			delete(metadata, key)
 		}
-
 	}
 
-	metadata["date"] = postDate.Format(time.RFC3339)
+	c.r.Println("Congratulations!", fileCount, "post(s) imported!")
+	c.r.Println("Now, start Hugo by yourself:\n" +
+		"$ git clone https://github.com/spf13/herring-cove.git " + args[1] + "/themes/herring-cove")
+	c.r.Println("$ cd " + args[1] + "\n$ hugo server --theme=herring-cove")
 
-	return metadata, nil
+	return nil
 }
 
-func convertJekyllContent(m any, content string) (string, error) {
-	metadata, _ := maps.ToStringMapE(m)
-
-	lines := strings.Split(content, "\n")
-	var resultLines []string
-	for _, line := range lines {
-		resultLines = append(resultLines, strings.Trim(line, "\r\n"))
-	}
+func (c *importCommand) loadJekyllConfig(fs afero.Fs, jekyllRoot string) map[string]any {
+	path := filepath.Join(jekyllRoot, "_config.yml")
 
-	content = strings.Join(resultLines, "\n")
+	exists, err := helpers.Exists(path, fs)
 
-	excerptSep := "<!--more-->"
-	if value, ok := metadata["excerpt_separator"]; ok {
-		if str, strOk := value.(string); strOk {
-			content = strings.Replace(content, strings.TrimSpace(str), excerptSep, -1)
-		}
+	if err != nil || !exists {
+		c.r.Println("_config.yaml not found: Is the specified Jekyll root correct?")
+		return nil
 	}
 
-	replaceList := []struct {
-		re      *regexp.Regexp
-		replace string
-	}{
-		{regexp.MustCompile("(?i)<!-- more -->"), "<!--more-->"},
-		{regexp.MustCompile(`\{%\s*raw\s*%\}\s*(.*?)\s*\{%\s*endraw\s*%\}`), "$1"},
-		{regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s*endhighlight\s*%}`), "{{< / highlight >}}"},
+	f, err := fs.Open(path)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil
 	}
 
-	for _, replace := range replaceList {
-		content = replace.re.ReplaceAllString(content, replace.replace)
+	defer f.Close()
+
+	b, err := io.ReadAll(f)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil
 	}
 
-	replaceListFunc := []struct {
-		re      *regexp.Regexp
-		replace func(string) string
-	}{
-		// Octopress image tag: http://octopress.org/docs/plugins/image-tag/
-		{regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s+img\s*(.*?)\s*%}`), replaceImageTag},
-		{regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s*highlight\s*(.*?)\s*%}`), replaceHighlightTag},
+	m, err := metadecoders.Default.UnmarshalToMap(b, metadecoders.YAML)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil
 	}
 
-	for _, replace := range replaceListFunc {
-		content = replace.re.ReplaceAllStringFunc(content, replace.replace)
+	return m
+}
+
+func (c *importCommand) parseJekyllFilename(filename string) (time.Time, string, error) {
+	re := regexp.MustCompile(`(\d+-\d+-\d+)-(.+)\..*`)
+	r := re.FindAllStringSubmatch(filename, -1)
+	if len(r) == 0 {
+		return htime.Now(), "", errors.New("filename not match")
 	}
 
-	var buf bytes.Buffer
-	if len(metadata) != 0 {
-		err := parser.InterfaceToFrontMatter(m, metadecoders.YAML, &buf)
-		if err != nil {
-			return "", err
-		}
+	postDate, err := time.Parse("2006-1-2", r[0][1])
+	if err != nil {
+		return htime.Now(), "", err
 	}
-	buf.WriteString(content)
 
-	return buf.String(), nil
+	postName := r[0][2]
+
+	return postDate, postName, nil
 }
 
-func replaceHighlightTag(match string) string {
+func (c *importCommand) replaceHighlightTag(match string) string {
 	r := regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s*highlight\s*(.*?)\s*%}`)
 	parts := r.FindStringSubmatch(match)
 	lastQuote := rune(0)
@@ -570,35 +566,55 @@ func replaceHighlightTag(match string) string {
 	return result.String()
 }
 
-func replaceImageTag(match string) string {
+func (c *importCommand) replaceImageTag(match string) string {
 	r := regexp.MustCompile(`{%\s+img\s*(\p{L}*)\s+([\S]*/[\S]+)\s+(\d*)\s*(\d*)\s*(.*?)\s*%}`)
 	result := bytes.NewBufferString("{{< figure ")
 	parts := r.FindStringSubmatch(match)
 	// Index 0 is the entire string, ignore
-	replaceOptionalPart(result, "class", parts[1])
-	replaceOptionalPart(result, "src", parts[2])
-	replaceOptionalPart(result, "width", parts[3])
-	replaceOptionalPart(result, "height", parts[4])
+	c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "class", parts[1])
+	c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "src", parts[2])
+	c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "width", parts[3])
+	c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "height", parts[4])
 	// title + alt
 	part := parts[5]
 	if len(part) > 0 {
 		splits := strings.Split(part, "'")
 		lenSplits := len(splits)
 		if lenSplits == 1 {
-			replaceOptionalPart(result, "title", splits[0])
+			c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "title", splits[0])
 		} else if lenSplits == 3 {
-			replaceOptionalPart(result, "title", splits[1])
+			c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "title", splits[1])
 		} else if lenSplits == 5 {
-			replaceOptionalPart(result, "title", splits[1])
-			replaceOptionalPart(result, "alt", splits[3])
+			c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "title", splits[1])
+			c.replaceOptionalPart(result, "alt", splits[3])
 		}
 	}
 	result.WriteString(">}}")
 	return result.String()
 }
 
-func replaceOptionalPart(buffer *bytes.Buffer, partName string, part string) {
+func (c *importCommand) replaceOptionalPart(buffer *bytes.Buffer, partName string, part string) {
 	if len(part) > 0 {
 		buffer.WriteString(partName + "=\"" + part + "\" ")
 	}
 }
+
+func (c *importCommand) retrieveJekyllPostDir(fs afero.Fs, dir string) (bool, bool) {
+	if strings.HasSuffix(dir, "_posts") || strings.HasSuffix(dir, "_drafts") {
+		isEmpty, _ := helpers.IsEmpty(dir, fs)
+		return true, !isEmpty
+	}
+
+	if entries, err := os.ReadDir(dir); err == nil {
+		for _, entry := range entries {
+			if entry.IsDir() {
+				subDir := filepath.Join(dir, entry.Name())
+				if isPostDir, hasAnyPost := c.retrieveJekyllPostDir(fs, subDir); isPostDir {
+					return isPostDir, hasAnyPost
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return false, true
+}
diff --git a/commands/import_jekyll_test.go b/commands/import_jekyll_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index dbe4e25d0..000000000
--- a/commands/import_jekyll_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,177 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"encoding/json"
-	"testing"
-	"time"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-)
-
-func TestParseJekyllFilename(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	filenameArray := []string{
-		"2015-01-02-test.md",
-		"2012-03-15-中文.markup",
-	}
-
-	expectResult := []struct {
-		postDate time.Time
-		postName string
-	}{
-		{time.Date(2015, time.January, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), "test"},
-		{time.Date(2012, time.March, 15, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), "中文"},
-	}
-
-	for i, filename := range filenameArray {
-		postDate, postName, err := parseJekyllFilename(filename)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(expectResult[i].postDate.Format("2006-01-02"), qt.Equals, postDate.Format("2006-01-02"))
-		c.Assert(expectResult[i].postName, qt.Equals, postName)
-	}
-}
-
-func TestConvertJekyllMetadata(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	testDataList := []struct {
-		metadata any
-		postName string
-		postDate time.Time
-		draft    bool
-		expect   string
-	}{
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"testPost", time.Date(2015, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), false,
-			`{"date":"2015-10-01T00:00:00Z"}`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"testPost", time.Date(2015, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), true,
-			`{"date":"2015-10-01T00:00:00Z","draft":true}`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{"Permalink": "/permalink.html", "layout": "post"},
-			"testPost", time.Date(2015, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), false,
-			`{"date":"2015-10-01T00:00:00Z","url":"/permalink.html"}`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{"permalink": "/permalink.html"},
-			"testPost", time.Date(2015, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), false,
-			`{"date":"2015-10-01T00:00:00Z","url":"/permalink.html"}`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{"category": nil, "permalink": 123},
-			"testPost", time.Date(2015, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), false,
-			`{"date":"2015-10-01T00:00:00Z"}`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{"Excerpt_Separator": "sep"},
-			"testPost", time.Date(2015, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), false,
-			`{"date":"2015-10-01T00:00:00Z","excerpt_separator":"sep"}`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{"category": "book", "layout": "post", "Others": "Goods", "Date": "2015-10-01 12:13:11"},
-			"testPost", time.Date(2015, 10, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC), false,
-			`{"Others":"Goods","categories":["book"],"date":"2015-10-01T12:13:11Z"}`,
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, data := range testDataList {
-		result, err := convertJekyllMetaData(data.metadata, data.postName, data.postDate, data.draft)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		jsonResult, err := json.Marshal(result)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(string(jsonResult), qt.Equals, data.expect)
-	}
-}
-
-func TestConvertJekyllContent(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	testDataList := []struct {
-		metadata any
-		content  string
-		expect   string
-	}{
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"Test content\r\n<!-- more -->\npart2 content", "Test content\n<!--more-->\npart2 content",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"Test content\n<!-- More -->\npart2 content", "Test content\n<!--more-->\npart2 content",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{"excerpt_separator": "<!--sep-->"},
-			"Test content\n<!--sep-->\npart2 content",
-			"---\nexcerpt_separator: <!--sep-->\n---\nTest content\n<!--more-->\npart2 content",
-		},
-		{map[any]any{}, "{% raw %}text{% endraw %}", "text"},
-		{map[any]any{}, "{%raw%} text2 {%endraw %}", "text2"},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% highlight go %}\nvar s int\n{% endhighlight %}",
-			"{{< highlight go >}}\nvar s int\n{{< / highlight >}}",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% highlight go linenos hl_lines=\"1 2\" %}\nvar s string\nvar i int\n{% endhighlight %}",
-			"{{< highlight go \"linenos=table,hl_lines=1 2\" >}}\nvar s string\nvar i int\n{{< / highlight >}}",
-		},
-
-		// Octopress image tag
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% img http://placekitten.com/890/280 %}",
-			"{{< figure src=\"http://placekitten.com/890/280\" >}}",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% img left http://placekitten.com/320/250 Place Kitten #2 %}",
-			"{{< figure class=\"left\" src=\"http://placekitten.com/320/250\" title=\"Place Kitten #2\" >}}",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% img right http://placekitten.com/300/500 150 250 'Place Kitten #3' %}",
-			"{{< figure class=\"right\" src=\"http://placekitten.com/300/500\" width=\"150\" height=\"250\" title=\"Place Kitten #3\" >}}",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% img right http://placekitten.com/300/500 150 250 'Place Kitten #4' 'An image of a very cute kitten' %}",
-			"{{< figure class=\"right\" src=\"http://placekitten.com/300/500\" width=\"150\" height=\"250\" title=\"Place Kitten #4\" alt=\"An image of a very cute kitten\" >}}",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% img http://placekitten.com/300/500 150 250 'Place Kitten #4' 'An image of a very cute kitten' %}",
-			"{{< figure src=\"http://placekitten.com/300/500\" width=\"150\" height=\"250\" title=\"Place Kitten #4\" alt=\"An image of a very cute kitten\" >}}",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{},
-			"{% img right /placekitten/300/500 'Place Kitten #4' 'An image of a very cute kitten' %}",
-			"{{< figure class=\"right\" src=\"/placekitten/300/500\" title=\"Place Kitten #4\" alt=\"An image of a very cute kitten\" >}}",
-		},
-		{
-			map[any]any{"category": "book", "layout": "post", "Date": "2015-10-01 12:13:11"},
-			"somecontent",
-			"---\nDate: \"2015-10-01 12:13:11\"\ncategory: book\nlayout: post\n---\nsomecontent",
-		},
-	}
-	for _, data := range testDataList {
-		result, err := convertJekyllContent(data.metadata, data.content)
-		c.Assert(result, qt.Equals, data.expect)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	}
-}
diff --git a/commands/limit_darwin.go b/commands/limit_darwin.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 6799f37b1..000000000
--- a/commands/limit_darwin.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,84 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"syscall"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*limitCmd)(nil)
-
-type limitCmd struct {
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-func newLimitCmd() *limitCmd {
-	ccmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "ulimit",
-		Short: "Check system ulimit settings",
-		Long: `Hugo will inspect the current ulimit settings on the system.
-This is primarily to ensure that Hugo can watch enough files on some OSs`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			var rLimit syscall.Rlimit
-			err := syscall.Getrlimit(syscall.RLIMIT_NOFILE, &rLimit)
-			if err != nil {
-				return newSystemError("Error Getting rlimit ", err)
-			}
-
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Current rLimit:", rLimit)
-
-			if rLimit.Cur >= newRlimit {
-				return nil
-			}
-
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Attempting to increase limit")
-			rLimit.Cur = newRlimit
-			err = syscall.Setrlimit(syscall.RLIMIT_NOFILE, &rLimit)
-			if err != nil {
-				return newSystemError("Error Setting rLimit ", err)
-			}
-			err = syscall.Getrlimit(syscall.RLIMIT_NOFILE, &rLimit)
-			if err != nil {
-				return newSystemError("Error Getting rLimit ", err)
-			}
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("rLimit after change:", rLimit)
-
-			return nil
-		},
-	}
-
-	return &limitCmd{baseCmd: newBaseCmd(ccmd)}
-}
-
-const newRlimit = 10240
-
-func tweakLimit() {
-	var rLimit syscall.Rlimit
-	err := syscall.Getrlimit(syscall.RLIMIT_NOFILE, &rLimit)
-	if err != nil {
-		jww.WARN.Println("Unable to get rlimit:", err)
-		return
-	}
-	if rLimit.Cur < newRlimit {
-		rLimit.Cur = newRlimit
-		err = syscall.Setrlimit(syscall.RLIMIT_NOFILE, &rLimit)
-		if err != nil {
-			// This may not succeed, see https://github.com/golang/go/issues/30401
-			jww.INFO.Println("Unable to increase number of open files limit:", err)
-		}
-	}
-}
diff --git a/commands/limit_others.go b/commands/limit_others.go
deleted file mode 100644
index b141b7004..000000000
--- a/commands/limit_others.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,21 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-//go:build !darwin
-// +build !darwin
-
-package commands
-
-func tweakLimit() {
-	// nothing to do
-}
diff --git a/commands/list.go b/commands/list.go
index 4b62c91c5..2f2e29887 100644
--- a/commands/list.go
+++ b/commands/list.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,197 +14,154 @@
 package commands
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"encoding/csv"
-	"os"
-	"strconv"
-	"strings"
 	"time"
 
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*listCmd)(nil)
+// newListCommand creates a new list command and its subcommands.
+func newListCommand() *listCommand {
 
-type listCmd struct {
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
-
-func (lc *listCmd) buildSites(config map[string]any) (*hugolib.HugoSites, error) {
-	cfgInit := func(c *commandeer) error {
-		for key, value := range config {
-			c.Set(key, value)
+	list := func(cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, createRecord func(page.Page) []string, opts ...any) error {
+		bcfg := hugolib.BuildCfg{SkipRender: true}
+		cfg := config.New()
+		for i := 0; i < len(opts); i += 2 {
+			cfg.Set(opts[i].(string), opts[i+1])
+		}
+		h, err := r.Build(cd, bcfg, cfg)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
 		}
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	c, err := initializeConfig(true, true, false, &lc.hugoBuilderCommon, lc, cfgInit)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	sites, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(*c.DepsCfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, newSystemError("Error creating sites", err)
-	}
-
-	if err := sites.Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{SkipRender: true}); err != nil {
-		return nil, newSystemError("Error Processing Source Content", err)
-	}
 
-	return sites, nil
-}
+		writer := csv.NewWriter(r.Out)
+		defer writer.Flush()
 
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newListCmd() *listCmd {
-	cc := &listCmd{}
+		for _, p := range h.Pages() {
+			if record := createRecord(p); record != nil {
+				if err := writer.Write(record); err != nil {
+					return err
+				}
+				if err != nil {
+					return err
+				}
+			}
+		}
 
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "list",
-		Short: "Listing out various types of content",
-		Long: `Listing out various types of content.
+		return nil
 
-List requires a subcommand, e.g. ` + "`hugo list drafts`.",
-		RunE: nil,
 	}
 
-	cmd.AddCommand(
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "drafts",
-			Short: "List all drafts",
-			Long:  `List all of the drafts in your content directory.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				sites, err := cc.buildSites(map[string]any{"buildDrafts": true})
-				if err != nil {
-					return newSystemError("Error building sites", err)
-				}
+	return &listCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "drafts",
+				short: "List all drafts",
+				long:  `List all of the drafts in your content directory.`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					createRecord := func(p page.Page) []string {
+						if !p.Draft() || p.File().IsZero() {
+							return nil
+						}
+						return []string{
+							p.File().Path(),
+							p.PublishDate().Format(time.RFC3339)}
 
-				for _, p := range sites.Pages() {
-					if p.Draft() {
-						jww.FEEDBACK.Println(strings.TrimPrefix(p.File().Filename(), sites.WorkingDir+string(os.PathSeparator)))
 					}
-				}
-
-				return nil
+					return list(cd, r, createRecord, "buildDrafts", true)
+				},
 			},
-		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "future",
-			Short: "List all posts dated in the future",
-			Long:  `List all of the posts in your content directory which will be posted in the future.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				sites, err := cc.buildSites(map[string]any{"buildFuture": true})
-				if err != nil {
-					return newSystemError("Error building sites", err)
-				}
-
-				if err != nil {
-					return newSystemError("Error building sites", err)
-				}
-
-				writer := csv.NewWriter(os.Stdout)
-				defer writer.Flush()
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "future",
+				short: "List all posts dated in the future",
+				long:  `List all of the posts in your content directory which will be posted in the future.`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					createRecord := func(p page.Page) []string {
+						if !resource.IsFuture(p) || p.File().IsZero() {
+							return nil
+						}
+						return []string{
+							p.File().Path(),
+							p.PublishDate().Format(time.RFC3339),
+						}
 
-				for _, p := range sites.Pages() {
-					if resource.IsFuture(p) {
-						err := writer.Write([]string{
-							strings.TrimPrefix(p.File().Filename(), sites.WorkingDir+string(os.PathSeparator)),
+					}
+					return list(cd, r, createRecord, "buildFuture", true)
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "expired",
+				short: "List all posts already expired",
+				long:  `List all of the posts in your content directory which has already expired.`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					createRecord := func(p page.Page) []string {
+						if !resource.IsExpired(p) || p.File().IsZero() {
+							return nil
+						}
+						return []string{
+							p.File().Path(),
 							p.PublishDate().Format(time.RFC3339),
-						})
-						if err != nil {
-							return newSystemError("Error writing future posts to stdout", err)
 						}
+
 					}
-				}
+					return list(cd, r, createRecord, "buildExpired", true)
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "all",
+				short: "List all posts",
+				long:  `List all of the posts in your content directory, include drafts, future and expired pages.`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					createRecord := func(p page.Page) []string {
+						if p.File().IsZero() {
+							return nil
+						}
+						return []string{
+							p.File().Path(),
+							p.PublishDate().Format(time.RFC3339),
+						}
 
-				return nil
+					}
+					return list(cd, r, createRecord, "buildDrafts", true, "buildFuture", true, "buildExpired", true)
+				},
 			},
 		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "expired",
-			Short: "List all posts already expired",
-			Long:  `List all of the posts in your content directory which has already expired.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				sites, err := cc.buildSites(map[string]any{"buildExpired": true})
-				if err != nil {
-					return newSystemError("Error building sites", err)
-				}
+	}
 
-				if err != nil {
-					return newSystemError("Error building sites", err)
-				}
+}
 
-				writer := csv.NewWriter(os.Stdout)
-				defer writer.Flush()
-
-				for _, p := range sites.Pages() {
-					if resource.IsExpired(p) {
-						err := writer.Write([]string{
-							strings.TrimPrefix(p.File().Filename(), sites.WorkingDir+string(os.PathSeparator)),
-							p.ExpiryDate().Format(time.RFC3339),
-						})
-						if err != nil {
-							return newSystemError("Error writing expired posts to stdout", err)
-						}
-					}
-				}
+type listCommand struct {
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+}
 
-				return nil
-			},
-		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "all",
-			Short: "List all posts",
-			Long:  `List all of the posts in your content directory, include drafts, future and expired pages.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				sites, err := cc.buildSites(map[string]any{
-					"buildExpired": true,
-					"buildDrafts":  true,
-					"buildFuture":  true,
-				})
-				if err != nil {
-					return newSystemError("Error building sites", err)
-				}
+func (c *listCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
 
-				writer := csv.NewWriter(os.Stdout)
-				defer writer.Flush()
-
-				writer.Write([]string{
-					"path",
-					"slug",
-					"title",
-					"date",
-					"expiryDate",
-					"publishDate",
-					"draft",
-					"permalink",
-				})
-				for _, p := range sites.Pages() {
-					if !p.IsPage() {
-						continue
-					}
-					err := writer.Write([]string{
-						strings.TrimPrefix(p.File().Filename(), sites.WorkingDir+string(os.PathSeparator)),
-						p.Slug(),
-						p.Title(),
-						p.Date().Format(time.RFC3339),
-						p.ExpiryDate().Format(time.RFC3339),
-						p.PublishDate().Format(time.RFC3339),
-						strconv.FormatBool(p.Draft()),
-						p.Permalink(),
-					})
-					if err != nil {
-						return newSystemError("Error writing posts to stdout", err)
-					}
-				}
+func (c *listCommand) Name() string {
+	return "list"
+}
 
-				return nil
-			},
-		},
-	)
+func (c *listCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	// Do nothing.
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *listCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Listing out various types of content"
+	cmd.Long = `Listing out various types of content.
 
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd)
+List requires a subcommand, e.g. hugo list drafts`
+
+	return nil
+}
 
-	return cc
+func (c *listCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	return nil
 }
diff --git a/commands/list_test.go b/commands/list_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 8b2535571..000000000
--- a/commands/list_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,68 +0,0 @@
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"bytes"
-	"encoding/csv"
-	"io"
-	"os"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
-	"testing"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-)
-
-func captureStdout(f func() error) (string, error) {
-	old := os.Stdout
-	r, w, _ := os.Pipe()
-	os.Stdout = w
-
-	err := f()
-
-	w.Close()
-	os.Stdout = old
-
-	var buf bytes.Buffer
-	io.Copy(&buf, r)
-	return buf.String(), err
-}
-
-func TestListAll(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	dir := createSimpleTestSite(t, testSiteConfig{})
-
-	hugoCmd := newCommandsBuilder().addAll().build()
-	cmd := hugoCmd.getCommand()
-
-	t.Cleanup(func() {
-		os.RemoveAll(dir)
-	})
-
-	cmd.SetArgs([]string{"-s=" + dir, "list", "all"})
-
-	out, err := captureStdout(func() error {
-		_, err := cmd.ExecuteC()
-		return err
-	})
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	r := csv.NewReader(strings.NewReader(out))
-
-	header, err := r.Read()
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(header, qt.DeepEquals, []string{
-		"path", "slug", "title",
-		"date", "expiryDate", "publishDate",
-		"draft", "permalink",
-	})
-
-	record, err := r.Read()
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(record, qt.DeepEquals, []string{
-		filepath.Join("content", "p1.md"), "", "P1",
-		"0001-01-01T00:00:00Z", "0001-01-01T00:00:00Z", "0001-01-01T00:00:00Z",
-		"false", "https://example.org/p1/",
-	})
-}
diff --git a/commands/mod.go b/commands/mod.go
index 44a48bf79..a0e488ecd 100644
--- a/commands/mod.go
+++ b/commands/mod.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2020 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,87 +14,18 @@
 package commands
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"errors"
-	"fmt"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"regexp"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules/npm"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*modCmd)(nil)
-
-type modCmd struct {
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
-
-func (c *modCmd) newVerifyCmd() *cobra.Command {
-	var clean bool
-
-	verifyCmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "verify",
-		Short: "Verify dependencies.",
-		Long: `Verify checks that the dependencies of the current module, which are stored in a local downloaded source cache, have not been modified since being downloaded.
-`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return c.withModsClient(true, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-				return c.Verify(clean)
-			})
-		},
-	}
-
-	verifyCmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&clean, "clean", "", false, "delete module cache for dependencies that fail verification")
-
-	return verifyCmd
-}
-
-var moduleNotFoundRe = regexp.MustCompile("module.*not found")
-
-func (c *modCmd) newCleanCmd() *cobra.Command {
-	var pattern string
-	var all bool
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "clean",
-		Short: "Delete the Hugo Module cache for the current project.",
-		Long: `Delete the Hugo Module cache for the current project.
-
-Note that after you run this command, all of your dependencies will be re-downloaded next time you run "hugo".
-
-Also note that if you configure a positive maxAge for the "modules" file cache, it will also be cleaned as part of "hugo --gc".
- 
-`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			if all {
-				com, err := c.initConfig(false)
-
-				if err != nil && com == nil {
-					return err
-				}
-
-				count, err := com.hugo().FileCaches.ModulesCache().Prune(true)
-				com.logger.Printf("Deleted %d files from module cache.", count)
-				return err
-			}
-			return c.withModsClient(true, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-				return c.Clean(pattern)
-			})
-		},
-	}
-
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&pattern, "pattern", "", "", `pattern matching module paths to clean (all if not set), e.g. "**hugo*"`)
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&all, "all", "", false, "clean entire module cache")
-
-	return cmd
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newModCmd() *modCmd {
-	c := &modCmd{}
-
-	const commonUsage = `
+const commonUsageMod = `
 Note that Hugo will always start out by resolving the components defined in the site
 configuration, provided by a _vendor directory (if no --ignoreVendorPaths flag provided),
 Go Modules, or a folder inside the themes directory, in that order.
@@ -103,27 +34,156 @@ See https://gohugo.io/hugo-modules/ for more information.
 
 `
 
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "mod",
-		Short: "Various Hugo Modules helpers.",
-		Long: `Various helpers to help manage the modules in your project's dependency graph.
+// buildConfigCommands creates a new config command and its subcommands.
+func newModCommands() *modCommands {
+	var (
+		clean   bool
+		pattern string
+		all     bool
+	)
 
-Most operations here requires a Go version installed on your system (>= Go 1.12) and the relevant VCS client (typically Git).
-This is not needed if you only operate on modules inside /themes or if you have vendored them via "hugo mod vendor".
+	npmCommand := &simpleCommand{
+		name:  "npm",
+		short: "Various npm helpers.",
+		long:  `Various npm (Node package manager) helpers.`,
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "pack",
+				short: "Experimental: Prepares and writes a composite package.json file for your project.",
+				long: `Prepares and writes a composite package.json file for your project.
 
-` + commonUsage,
+On first run it creates a "package.hugo.json" in the project root if not already there. This file will be used as a template file
+with the base dependency set. 
 
-		RunE: nil,
+This set will be merged with all "package.hugo.json" files found in the dependency tree, picking the version closest to the project.
+
+This command is marked as 'Experimental'. We think it's a great idea, so it's not likely to be
+removed from Hugo, but we need to test this out in "real life" to get a feel of it,
+so this may/will change in future versions of Hugo.
+`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					return npm.Pack(h.BaseFs.SourceFs, h.BaseFs.Assets.Dirs)
+				},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
-	cmd.AddCommand(newModNPMCmd(c))
+	return &modCommands{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "init",
+				short: "Initialize this project as a Hugo Module.",
+				long: `Initialize this project as a Hugo Module.
+	It will try to guess the module path, but you may help by passing it as an argument, e.g:
+	
+		hugo mod init github.com/gohugoio/testshortcodes
+	
+	Note that Hugo Modules supports multi-module projects, so you can initialize a Hugo Module
+	inside a subfolder on GitHub, as one example.
+	`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					var initPath string
+					if len(args) >= 1 {
+						initPath = args[0]
+					}
+					return h.Configs.ModulesClient.Init(initPath)
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "verify",
+				short: "Verify dependencies.",
+				long:  `Verify checks that the dependencies of the current module, which are stored in a local downloaded source cache, have not been modified since being downloaded.`,
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+					cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&clean, "clean", "", false, "delete module cache for dependencies that fail verification")
+				},
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					conf, err := r.ConfigFromProvider(r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					client := conf.configs.ModulesClient
+					return client.Verify(clean)
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "graph",
+				short: "Print a module dependency graph.",
+				long: `Print a module dependency graph with information about module status (disabled, vendored).
+Note that for vendored modules, that is the version listed and not the one from go.mod.
+`,
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+					cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&clean, "clean", "", false, "delete module cache for dependencies that fail verification")
+				},
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					conf, err := r.ConfigFromProvider(r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					client := conf.configs.ModulesClient
+					return client.Graph(os.Stdout)
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "clean",
+				short: "Delete the Hugo Module cache for the current project.",
+				long:  `Delete the Hugo Module cache for the current project.`,
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+					cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&pattern, "pattern", "", "", `pattern matching module paths to clean (all if not set), e.g. "**hugo*"`)
+					cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&all, "all", "", false, "clean entire module cache")
+				},
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					if all {
+						modCache := h.ResourceSpec.FileCaches.ModulesCache()
+						count, err := modCache.Prune(true)
+						r.Printf("Deleted %d files from module cache.", count)
+						return err
+					}
+
+					return h.Configs.ModulesClient.Clean(pattern)
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "tidy",
+				short: "Remove unused entries in go.mod and go.sum.",
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					return h.Configs.ModulesClient.Tidy()
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "vendor",
+				short: "Vendor all module dependencies into the _vendor directory.",
+				long: `Vendor all module dependencies into the _vendor directory.
+	If a module is vendored, that is where Hugo will look for it's dependencies.
+	`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					return h.Configs.ModulesClient.Vendor()
+				},
+			},
 
-	cmd.AddCommand(
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:                "get",
-			DisableFlagParsing: true,
-			Short:              "Resolves dependencies in your current Hugo Project.",
-			Long: `
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "get",
+				short: "Resolves dependencies in your current Hugo Project.",
+				long: `
 Resolves dependencies in your current Hugo Project.
 
 Some examples:
@@ -142,152 +202,109 @@ Install the latest versions of all module dependencies:
     hugo mod get -u ./... (recursive)
 
 Run "go help get" for more information. All flags available for "go get" is also relevant here.
-` + commonUsage,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				// We currently just pass on the flags we get to Go and
-				// need to do the flag handling manually.
-				if len(args) == 1 && args[0] == "-h" {
-					return cmd.Help()
-				}
-
-				var lastArg string
-				if len(args) != 0 {
-					lastArg = args[len(args)-1]
-				}
-
-				if lastArg == "./..." {
-					args = args[:len(args)-1]
-					// Do a recursive update.
-					dirname, err := os.Getwd()
-					if err != nil {
-						return err
+` + commonUsageMod,
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+					cmd.DisableFlagParsing = true
+				},
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					// We currently just pass on the flags we get to Go and
+					// need to do the flag handling manually.
+					if len(args) == 1 && args[0] == "-h" {
+						return errHelp
 					}
 
-					// Sanity check. We do recursive walking and want to avoid
-					// accidents.
-					if len(dirname) < 5 {
-						return errors.New("must not be run from the file system root")
+					var lastArg string
+					if len(args) != 0 {
+						lastArg = args[len(args)-1]
 					}
 
-					filepath.Walk(dirname, func(path string, info os.FileInfo, err error) error {
-						if info.IsDir() {
-							return nil
+					if lastArg == "./..." {
+						args = args[:len(args)-1]
+						// Do a recursive update.
+						dirname, err := os.Getwd()
+						if err != nil {
+							return err
 						}
 
-						if info.Name() == "go.mod" {
-							// Found a module.
-							dir := filepath.Dir(path)
-							fmt.Println("Update module in", dir)
-							c.source = dir
-							err := c.withModsClient(false, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-								if len(args) == 1 && args[0] == "-h" {
-									return cmd.Help()
-								}
-								return c.Get(args...)
-							})
-							if err != nil {
-								return err
-							}
-
+						// Sanity chesimplecobra. We do recursive walking and want to avoid
+						// accidents.
+						if len(dirname) < 5 {
+							return errors.New("must not be run from the file system root")
 						}
 
-						return nil
-					})
-
-					return nil
-				}
+						filepath.Walk(dirname, func(path string, info os.FileInfo, err error) error {
+							if info.IsDir() {
+								return nil
+							}
+							if info.Name() == "go.mod" {
+								// Found a module.
+								dir := filepath.Dir(path)
+								r.Println("Update module in", dir)
+								cfg := config.New()
+								cfg.Set("workingDir", dir)
+								conf, err := r.ConfigFromProvider(r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, cfg))
+								if err != nil {
+									return err
+								}
+								client := conf.configs.ModulesClient
+								return client.Get(args...)
 
-				return c.withModsClient(false, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-					return c.Get(args...)
-				})
-			},
-		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "graph",
-			Short: "Print a module dependency graph.",
-			Long: `Print a module dependency graph with information about module status (disabled, vendored).
-Note that for vendored modules, that is the version listed and not the one from go.mod.
-`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				return c.withModsClient(true, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-					return c.Graph(os.Stdout)
-				})
+							}
+							return nil
+						})
+						return nil
+					} else {
+						conf, err := r.ConfigFromProvider(r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+						if err != nil {
+							return err
+						}
+						client := conf.configs.ModulesClient
+						return client.Get(args...)
+					}
+				},
 			},
+			npmCommand,
 		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "init",
-			Short: "Initialize this project as a Hugo Module.",
-			Long: `Initialize this project as a Hugo Module.
-It will try to guess the module path, but you may help by passing it as an argument, e.g:
+	}
 
-    hugo mod init github.com/gohugoio/testshortcodes
+}
 
-Note that Hugo Modules supports multi-module projects, so you can initialize a Hugo Module
-inside a subfolder on GitHub, as one example.
-`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				var path string
-				if len(args) >= 1 {
-					path = args[0]
-				}
-				return c.withModsClient(false, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-					return c.Init(path)
-				})
-			},
-		},
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "vendor",
-			Short: "Vendor all module dependencies into the _vendor directory.",
-			Long: `Vendor all module dependencies into the _vendor directory.
+type modCommands struct {
+	r *rootCommand
 
-If a module is vendored, that is where Hugo will look for it's dependencies.
-`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				return c.withModsClient(true, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-					return c.Vendor()
-				})
-			},
-		},
-		c.newVerifyCmd(),
-		&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "tidy",
-			Short: "Remove unused entries in go.mod and go.sum.",
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				return c.withModsClient(true, func(c *modules.Client) error {
-					return c.Tidy()
-				})
-			},
-		},
-		c.newCleanCmd(),
-	)
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+}
 
-	c.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderCmd(cmd)
+func (c *modCommands) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
 
-	return c
+func (c *modCommands) Name() string {
+	return "mod"
 }
 
-func (c *modCmd) withModsClient(failOnMissingConfig bool, f func(*modules.Client) error) error {
-	com, err := c.initConfig(failOnMissingConfig)
+func (c *modCommands) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	_, err := c.r.ConfigFromProvider(c.r.configVersionID.Load(), nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
+	//config := conf.configs.Base
 
-	return f(com.hugo().ModulesClient)
+	return nil
 }
 
-func (c *modCmd) withHugo(f func(*hugolib.HugoSites) error) error {
-	com, err := c.initConfig(true)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
+func (c *modCommands) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Various Hugo Modules helpers."
+	cmd.Long = `Various helpers to help manage the modules in your project's dependency graph.
+Most operations here requires a Go version installed on your system (>= Go 1.12) and the relevant VCS client (typically Git).
+This is not needed if you only operate on modules inside /themes or if you have vendored them via "hugo mod vendor".
 
-	return f(com.hugo())
+` + commonUsageMod
+	cmd.RunE = nil
+	return nil
 }
 
-func (c *modCmd) initConfig(failOnNoConfig bool) (*commandeer, error) {
-	com, err := initializeConfig(failOnNoConfig, false, false, &c.hugoBuilderCommon, c, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	return com, nil
+func (c *modCommands) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.r = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	return nil
 }
diff --git a/commands/mod_npm.go b/commands/mod_npm.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 852d98571..000000000
--- a/commands/mod_npm.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,56 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2020 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules/npm"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-)
-
-func newModNPMCmd(c *modCmd) *cobra.Command {
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "npm",
-		Short: "Various npm helpers.",
-		Long:  `Various npm (Node package manager) helpers.`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return c.withHugo(func(h *hugolib.HugoSites) error {
-				return nil
-			})
-		},
-	}
-
-	cmd.AddCommand(&cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "pack",
-		Short: "Experimental: Prepares and writes a composite package.json file for your project.",
-		Long: `Prepares and writes a composite package.json file for your project.
-
-On first run it creates a "package.hugo.json" in the project root if not already there. This file will be used as a template file
-with the base dependency set. 
-
-This set will be merged with all "package.hugo.json" files found in the dependency tree, picking the version closest to the project.
-
-This command is marked as 'Experimental'. We think it's a great idea, so it's not likely to be
-removed from Hugo, but we need to test this out in "real life" to get a feel of it,
-so this may/will change in future versions of Hugo.
-`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return c.withHugo(func(h *hugolib.HugoSites) error {
-				return npm.Pack(h.BaseFs.SourceFs, h.BaseFs.Assets.Dirs)
-			})
-		},
-	})
-
-	return cmd
-}
diff --git a/commands/new.go b/commands/new.go
index a6c2c8ca1..3a0e3ad71 100644
--- a/commands/new.go
+++ b/commands/new.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -15,114 +15,351 @@ package commands
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
-	"os"
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/create"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*newCmd)(nil)
+func newNewCommand() *newCommand {
+	var (
+		configFormat string
+		force        bool
+		contentType  string
+	)
 
-type newCmd struct {
-	contentEditor string
-	contentType   string
-	force         bool
+	var c *newCommand
+	c = &newCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "content",
+				use:   "content [path]",
+				short: "Create new content for your site",
+				long: `Create a new content file and automatically set the date and title.
+		It will guess which kind of file to create based on the path provided.
+		
+		You can also specify the kind with ` + "`-k KIND`" + `.
+		
+		If archetypes are provided in your theme or site, they will be used.
+		
+		Ensure you run this within the root directory of your site.`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					if len(args) < 1 {
+						return errors.New("path needs to be provided")
+					}
+					h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					return create.NewContent(h, contentType, args[0], force)
+				},
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+					cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&contentType, "kind", "k", "", "content type to create")
+					cmd.Flags().String("editor", "", "edit new content with this editor, if provided")
+					cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&force, "force", "f", false, "overwrite file if it already exists")
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "site",
+				use:   "site [path]",
+				short: "Create a new site (skeleton)",
+				long: `Create a new site in the provided directory.
+The new site will have the correct structure, but no content or theme yet.
+Use ` + "`hugo new [contentPath]`" + ` to create new content.`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					if len(args) < 1 {
+						return errors.New("path needs to be provided")
+					}
+					createpath, err := filepath.Abs(filepath.Clean(args[0]))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
 
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
+					cfg := config.New()
+					cfg.Set("workingDir", createpath)
+					cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
 
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newNewCmd() *newCmd {
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "new [path]",
-		Short: "Create new content for your site",
-		Long: `Create a new content file and automatically set the date and title.
-It will guess which kind of file to create based on the path provided.
+					conf, err := r.ConfigFromProvider(r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, cfg))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					sourceFs := conf.fs.Source
 
-You can also specify the kind with ` + "`-k KIND`" + `.
+					archeTypePath := filepath.Join(createpath, "archetypes")
+					dirs := []string{
+						archeTypePath,
+						filepath.Join(createpath, "assets"),
+						filepath.Join(createpath, "content"),
+						filepath.Join(createpath, "data"),
+						filepath.Join(createpath, "layouts"),
+						filepath.Join(createpath, "static"),
+						filepath.Join(createpath, "themes"),
+					}
 
-If archetypes are provided in your theme or site, they will be used.
+					if exists, _ := helpers.Exists(createpath, sourceFs); exists {
+						if isDir, _ := helpers.IsDir(createpath, sourceFs); !isDir {
+							return errors.New(createpath + " already exists but not a directory")
+						}
+
+						isEmpty, _ := helpers.IsEmpty(createpath, sourceFs)
+
+						switch {
+						case !isEmpty && !force:
+							return errors.New(createpath + " already exists and is not empty. See --force.")
+
+						case !isEmpty && force:
+							all := append(dirs, filepath.Join(createpath, "hugo."+configFormat))
+							for _, path := range all {
+								if exists, _ := helpers.Exists(path, sourceFs); exists {
+									return errors.New(path + " already exists")
+								}
+							}
+						}
+					}
+
+					for _, dir := range dirs {
+						if err := sourceFs.MkdirAll(dir, 0777); err != nil {
+							return fmt.Errorf("failed to create dir: %w", err)
+						}
+					}
+
+					c.newSiteCreateConfig(sourceFs, createpath, configFormat)
+
+					// Create a default archetype file.
+					helpers.SafeWriteToDisk(filepath.Join(archeTypePath, "default.md"),
+						strings.NewReader(create.DefaultArchetypeTemplateTemplate), sourceFs)
+
+					r.Printf("Congratulations! Your new Hugo site is created in %s.\n\n", createpath)
+					r.Println(c.newSiteNextStepsText())
+
+					return nil
+				},
+				withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+					cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&configFormat, "format", "f", "toml", "config file format")
+					cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&force, "force", false, "init inside non-empty directory")
+				},
+			},
+			&simpleCommand{
+				name:  "theme",
+				use:   "theme [path]",
+				short: "Create a new site (skeleton)",
+				long: `Create a new site in the provided directory.
+The new site will have the correct structure, but no content or theme yet.
+Use ` + "`hugo new [contentPath]`" + ` to create new content.`,
+				run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+					h, err := r.Hugo(flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+					ps := h.PathSpec
+					sourceFs := ps.Fs.Source
+					themesDir := h.Configs.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig.ThemesDir
+					createpath := ps.AbsPathify(filepath.Join(themesDir, args[0]))
+					r.Println("Creating theme at", createpath)
+
+					if x, _ := helpers.Exists(createpath, sourceFs); x {
+						return errors.New(createpath + " already exists")
+					}
+
+					for _, filename := range []string{
+						"index.html",
+						"404.html",
+						"_default/list.html",
+						"_default/single.html",
+						"partials/head.html",
+						"partials/header.html",
+						"partials/footer.html",
+					} {
+						touchFile(sourceFs, filepath.Join(createpath, "layouts", filename))
+					}
+
+					baseofDefault := []byte(`<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html>
+    {{- partial "head.html" . -}}
+    <body>
+        {{- partial "header.html" . -}}
+        <div id="content">
+        {{- block "main" . }}{{- end }}
+        </div>
+        {{- partial "footer.html" . -}}
+    </body>
+</html>
+`)
+
+					err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(createpath, "layouts", "_default", "baseof.html"), bytes.NewReader(baseofDefault), sourceFs)
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
 
-Ensure you run this within the root directory of your site.`,
+					mkdir(createpath, "archetypes")
+
+					archDefault := []byte("+++\n+++\n")
+
+					err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(createpath, "archetypes", "default.md"), bytes.NewReader(archDefault), sourceFs)
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+
+					mkdir(createpath, "static", "js")
+					mkdir(createpath, "static", "css")
+
+					by := []byte(`The MIT License (MIT)
+
+Copyright (c) ` + htime.Now().Format("2006") + ` YOUR_NAME_HERE
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
+this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in
+the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
+use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
+subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
+FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
+COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
+IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
+CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+`)
+
+					err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(createpath, "LICENSE"), bytes.NewReader(by), sourceFs)
+					if err != nil {
+						return err
+					}
+
+					c.createThemeMD(ps.Fs.Source, createpath)
+
+					return nil
+				},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
-	cc := &newCmd{baseBuilderCmd: b.newBuilderCmd(cmd)}
+	return c
 
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.contentType, "kind", "k", "", "content type to create")
-	cmd.Flags().StringVar(&cc.contentEditor, "editor", "", "edit new content with this editor, if provided")
-	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&cc.force, "force", "f", false, "overwrite file if it already exists")
+}
 
-	cmd.AddCommand(b.newNewSiteCmd().getCommand())
-	cmd.AddCommand(b.newNewThemeCmd().getCommand())
+type newCommand struct {
+	rootCmd *rootCommand
 
-	cmd.RunE = cc.newContent
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+}
 
-	return cc
+func (c *newCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
 }
 
-func (n *newCmd) newContent(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-	cfgInit := func(c *commandeer) error {
-		if cmd.Flags().Changed("editor") {
-			c.Set("newContentEditor", n.contentEditor)
-		}
-		return nil
-	}
+func (c *newCommand) Name() string {
+	return "new"
+}
 
-	c, err := initializeConfig(true, true, false, &n.hugoBuilderCommon, n, cfgInit)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
+func (c *newCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	return nil
+}
 
-	if len(args) < 1 {
-		return newUserError("path needs to be provided")
-	}
+func (c *newCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Create new content for your site"
+	cmd.Long = `Create a new content file and automatically set the date and title.
+It will guess which kind of file to create based on the path provided.
+
+You can also specify the kind with ` + "`-k KIND`" + `.
 
-	return create.NewContent(c.hugo(), n.contentType, args[0], n.force)
+If archetypes are provided in your theme or site, they will be used.
+
+Ensure you run this within the root directory of your site.`
+	return nil
 }
 
-func mkdir(x ...string) {
-	p := filepath.Join(x...)
+func (c *newCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.rootCmd = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	return nil
+}
 
-	err := os.MkdirAll(p, 0777) // before umask
-	if err != nil {
-		jww.FATAL.Fatalln(err)
+func (c *newCommand) newSiteCreateConfig(fs afero.Fs, inpath string, kind string) (err error) {
+	in := map[string]string{
+		"baseURL":      "http://example.org/",
+		"title":        "My New Hugo Site",
+		"languageCode": "en-us",
 	}
-}
 
-func touchFile(fs afero.Fs, x ...string) {
-	inpath := filepath.Join(x...)
-	mkdir(filepath.Dir(inpath))
-	err := helpers.WriteToDisk(inpath, bytes.NewReader([]byte{}), fs)
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+	err = parser.InterfaceToConfig(in, metadecoders.FormatFromString(kind), &buf)
 	if err != nil {
-		jww.FATAL.Fatalln(err)
+		return err
 	}
+
+	return helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(inpath, "hugo."+kind), &buf, fs)
 }
 
-func newContentPathSection(h *hugolib.HugoSites, path string) (string, string) {
-	// Forward slashes is used in all examples. Convert if needed.
-	// Issue #1133
-	createpath := filepath.FromSlash(path)
+func (c *newCommand) newSiteNextStepsText() string {
+	var nextStepsText bytes.Buffer
 
-	if h != nil {
-		for _, dir := range h.BaseFs.Content.Dirs {
-			createpath = strings.TrimPrefix(createpath, dir.Meta().Filename)
-		}
-	}
+	nextStepsText.WriteString(`Just a few more steps and you're ready to go:
+
+1. Download a theme into the same-named folder.
+   Choose a theme from https://themes.gohugo.io/ or
+   create your own with the "hugo new theme <THEMENAME>" command.
+2. Perhaps you want to add some content. You can add single files
+   with "hugo new `)
+
+	nextStepsText.WriteString(filepath.Join("<SECTIONNAME>", "<FILENAME>.<FORMAT>"))
+
+	nextStepsText.WriteString(`".
+3. Start the built-in live server via "hugo server".
+
+Visit https://gohugo.io/ for quickstart guide and full documentation.`)
+
+	return nextStepsText.String()
+}
+
+func (c *newCommand) createThemeMD(fs afero.Fs, inpath string) (err error) {
 
-	var section string
-	// assume the first directory is the section (kind)
-	if strings.Contains(createpath[1:], helpers.FilePathSeparator) {
-		parts := strings.Split(strings.TrimPrefix(createpath, helpers.FilePathSeparator), helpers.FilePathSeparator)
-		if len(parts) > 0 {
-			section = parts[0]
-		}
+	by := []byte(`# theme.toml template for a Hugo theme
+# See https://github.com/gohugoio/hugoThemes#themetoml for an example
 
+name = "` + strings.Title(helpers.MakeTitle(filepath.Base(inpath))) + `"
+license = "MIT"
+licenselink = "https://github.com/yourname/yourtheme/blob/master/LICENSE"
+description = ""
+homepage = "http://example.com/"
+tags = []
+features = []
+min_version = "0.41.0"
+
+[author]
+  name = ""
+  homepage = ""
+
+# If porting an existing theme
+[original]
+  name = ""
+  homepage = ""
+  repo = ""
+`)
+
+	err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(inpath, "theme.toml"), bytes.NewReader(by), fs)
+	if err != nil {
+		return
+	}
+
+	err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(inpath, "hugo.toml"), strings.NewReader("# Theme config.\n"), fs)
+	if err != nil {
+		return
 	}
 
-	return createpath, section
+	return nil
 }
diff --git a/commands/new_content_test.go b/commands/new_content_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 42a7c968c..000000000
--- a/commands/new_content_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,29 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"path/filepath"
-	"testing"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-)
-
-// Issue #1133
-func TestNewContentPathSectionWithForwardSlashes(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	p, s := newContentPathSection(nil, "/post/new.md")
-	c.Assert(p, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/post/new.md"))
-	c.Assert(s, qt.Equals, "post")
-}
diff --git a/commands/new_site.go b/commands/new_site.go
deleted file mode 100644
index fc4127f8b..000000000
--- a/commands/new_site.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,167 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"bytes"
-	"errors"
-	"fmt"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/create"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*newSiteCmd)(nil)
-
-type newSiteCmd struct {
-	configFormat string
-
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newNewSiteCmd() *newSiteCmd {
-	cc := &newSiteCmd{}
-
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "site [path]",
-		Short: "Create a new site (skeleton)",
-		Long: `Create a new site in the provided directory.
-The new site will have the correct structure, but no content or theme yet.
-Use ` + "`hugo new [contentPath]`" + ` to create new content.`,
-		RunE: cc.newSite,
-	}
-
-	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.configFormat, "format", "f", "toml", "config file format")
-	cmd.Flags().Bool("force", false, "init inside non-empty directory")
-
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd)
-
-	return cc
-}
-
-func (n *newSiteCmd) doNewSite(fs *hugofs.Fs, basepath string, force bool) error {
-	archeTypePath := filepath.Join(basepath, "archetypes")
-	dirs := []string{
-		archeTypePath,
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "assets"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "content"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "data"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "layouts"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "static"),
-		filepath.Join(basepath, "themes"),
-	}
-
-	if exists, _ := helpers.Exists(basepath, fs.Source); exists {
-		if isDir, _ := helpers.IsDir(basepath, fs.Source); !isDir {
-			return errors.New(basepath + " already exists but not a directory")
-		}
-
-		isEmpty, _ := helpers.IsEmpty(basepath, fs.Source)
-
-		switch {
-		case !isEmpty && !force:
-			return errors.New(basepath + " already exists and is not empty. See --force.")
-
-		case !isEmpty && force:
-			// TODO(bep) eventually rename this to hugo.
-			all := append(dirs, filepath.Join(basepath, "config."+n.configFormat))
-			for _, path := range all {
-				if exists, _ := helpers.Exists(path, fs.Source); exists {
-					return errors.New(path + " already exists")
-				}
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	for _, dir := range dirs {
-		if err := fs.Source.MkdirAll(dir, 0777); err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("Failed to create dir: %w", err)
-		}
-	}
-
-	createConfig(fs, basepath, n.configFormat)
-
-	// Create a default archetype file.
-	helpers.SafeWriteToDisk(filepath.Join(archeTypePath, "default.md"),
-		strings.NewReader(create.DefaultArchetypeTemplateTemplate), fs.Source)
-
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("Congratulations! Your new Hugo site is created in %s.\n\n", basepath)
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println(nextStepsText())
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-// newSite creates a new Hugo site and initializes a structured Hugo directory.
-func (n *newSiteCmd) newSite(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-	if len(args) < 1 {
-		return newUserError("path needs to be provided")
-	}
-
-	createpath, err := filepath.Abs(filepath.Clean(args[0]))
-	if err != nil {
-		return newUserError(err)
-	}
-
-	forceNew, _ := cmd.Flags().GetBool("force")
-	cfg := config.New()
-	cfg.Set("workingDir", createpath)
-	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
-	return n.doNewSite(hugofs.NewDefault(cfg), createpath, forceNew)
-}
-
-func createConfig(fs *hugofs.Fs, inpath string, kind string) (err error) {
-	in := map[string]string{
-		"baseURL":      "http://example.org/",
-		"title":        "My New Hugo Site",
-		"languageCode": "en-us",
-	}
-
-	var buf bytes.Buffer
-	err = parser.InterfaceToConfig(in, metadecoders.FormatFromString(kind), &buf)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	return helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(inpath, "config."+kind), &buf, fs.Source)
-}
-
-func nextStepsText() string {
-	var nextStepsText bytes.Buffer
-
-	nextStepsText.WriteString(`Just a few more steps and you're ready to go:
-
-1. Download a theme into the same-named folder.
-   Choose a theme from https://themes.gohugo.io/ or
-   create your own with the "hugo new theme <THEMENAME>" command.
-2. Perhaps you want to add some content. You can add single files
-   with "hugo new `)
-
-	nextStepsText.WriteString(filepath.Join("<SECTIONNAME>", "<FILENAME>.<FORMAT>"))
-
-	nextStepsText.WriteString(`".
-3. Start the built-in live server via "hugo server".
-
-Visit https://gohugo.io/ for quickstart guide and full documentation.`)
-
-	return nextStepsText.String()
-}
diff --git a/commands/new_theme.go b/commands/new_theme.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 4e2357b55..000000000
--- a/commands/new_theme.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,176 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"bytes"
-	"errors"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*newThemeCmd)(nil)
-
-type newThemeCmd struct {
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newNewThemeCmd() *newThemeCmd {
-	cc := &newThemeCmd{}
-
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "theme [name]",
-		Short: "Create a new theme",
-		Long: `Create a new theme (skeleton) called [name] in ./themes.
-New theme is a skeleton. Please add content to the touched files. Add your
-name to the copyright line in the license and adjust the theme.toml file
-as you see fit.`,
-		RunE: cc.newTheme,
-	}
-
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd)
-
-	return cc
-}
-
-// newTheme creates a new Hugo theme template
-func (n *newThemeCmd) newTheme(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-	c, err := initializeConfig(false, false, false, &n.hugoBuilderCommon, n, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	if len(args) < 1 {
-		return newUserError("theme name needs to be provided")
-	}
-
-	createpath := c.hugo().PathSpec.AbsPathify(filepath.Join(c.Cfg.GetString("themesDir"), args[0]))
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Creating theme at", createpath)
-
-	cfg := c.DepsCfg
-
-	if x, _ := helpers.Exists(createpath, cfg.Fs.Source); x {
-		return errors.New(createpath + " already exists")
-	}
-
-	mkdir(createpath, "layouts", "_default")
-	mkdir(createpath, "layouts", "partials")
-
-	touchFile(cfg.Fs.Source, createpath, "layouts", "index.html")
-	touchFile(cfg.Fs.Source, createpath, "layouts", "404.html")
-	touchFile(cfg.Fs.Source, createpath, "layouts", "_default", "list.html")
-	touchFile(cfg.Fs.Source, createpath, "layouts", "_default", "single.html")
-
-	baseofDefault := []byte(`<!DOCTYPE html>
-<html>
-    {{- partial "head.html" . -}}
-    <body>
-        {{- partial "header.html" . -}}
-        <div id="content">
-        {{- block "main" . }}{{- end }}
-        </div>
-        {{- partial "footer.html" . -}}
-    </body>
-</html>
-`)
-	err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(createpath, "layouts", "_default", "baseof.html"), bytes.NewReader(baseofDefault), cfg.Fs.Source)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	touchFile(cfg.Fs.Source, createpath, "layouts", "partials", "head.html")
-	touchFile(cfg.Fs.Source, createpath, "layouts", "partials", "header.html")
-	touchFile(cfg.Fs.Source, createpath, "layouts", "partials", "footer.html")
-
-	mkdir(createpath, "archetypes")
-
-	archDefault := []byte("+++\n+++\n")
-
-	err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(createpath, "archetypes", "default.md"), bytes.NewReader(archDefault), cfg.Fs.Source)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	mkdir(createpath, "static", "js")
-	mkdir(createpath, "static", "css")
-
-	by := []byte(`The MIT License (MIT)
-
-Copyright (c) ` + htime.Now().Format("2006") + ` YOUR_NAME_HERE
-
-Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of
-this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in
-the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to
-use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
-the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so,
-subject to the following conditions:
-
-The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
-copies or substantial portions of the Software.
-
-THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
-IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
-FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR
-COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER
-IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN
-CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
-`)
-
-	err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(createpath, "LICENSE"), bytes.NewReader(by), cfg.Fs.Source)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	n.createThemeMD(cfg.Fs, createpath)
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (n *newThemeCmd) createThemeMD(fs *hugofs.Fs, inpath string) (err error) {
-	by := []byte(`# theme.toml template for a Hugo theme
-# See https://github.com/gohugoio/hugoThemes#themetoml for an example
-
-name = "` + strings.Title(helpers.MakeTitle(filepath.Base(inpath))) + `"
-license = "MIT"
-licenselink = "https://github.com/yourname/yourtheme/blob/master/LICENSE"
-description = ""
-homepage = "http://example.com/"
-tags = []
-features = []
-min_version = "0.41.0"
-
-[author]
-  name = ""
-  homepage = ""
-
-# If porting an existing theme
-[original]
-  name = ""
-  homepage = ""
-  repo = ""
-`)
-
-	err = helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(inpath, "theme.toml"), bytes.NewReader(by), fs.Source)
-	if err != nil {
-		return
-	}
-
-	return nil
-}
diff --git a/commands/nodeploy.go b/commands/nodeploy.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 061ea503e..000000000
--- a/commands/nodeploy.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,51 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-//go:build nodeploy
-// +build nodeploy
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"errors"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*deployCmd)(nil)
-
-// deployCmd supports deploying sites to Cloud providers.
-type deployCmd struct {
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newDeployCmd() *deployCmd {
-	cc := &deployCmd{}
-
-	cmd := &cobra.Command{
-		Use:   "deploy",
-		Short: "Deploy your site to a Cloud provider.",
-		Long: `Deploy your site to a Cloud provider.
-
-See https://gohugo.io/hosting-and-deployment/hugo-deploy/ for detailed
-documentation.
-`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return errors.New("build without HUGO_BUILD_TAGS=nodeploy to use this command")
-		},
-	}
-
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderBasicCmd(cmd)
-
-	return cc
-}
diff --git a/commands/release.go b/commands/release.go
index 2072f3eb2..fe3c5efb6 100644
--- a/commands/release.go
+++ b/commands/release.go
@@ -1,7 +1,4 @@
-//go:build release
-// +build release
-
-// Copyright 2017-present The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -17,55 +14,39 @@
 package commands
 
 import (
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"context"
+
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/releaser"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-var _ cmder = (*releaseCommandeer)(nil)
-
-type releaseCommandeer struct {
-	cmd *cobra.Command
-
-	step     int
-	skipPush bool
-	try      bool
-}
-
-func createReleaser() cmder {
-	// Note: This is a command only meant for internal use and must be run
-	// via "go run -tags release main.go release" on the actual code base that is in the release.
-	r := &releaseCommandeer{
-		cmd: &cobra.Command{
-			Use:    "release",
-			Short:  "Release a new version of Hugo.",
-			Hidden: true,
+// Note: This is a command only meant for internal use and must be run
+// via "go run -tags release main.go release" on the actual code base that is in the release.
+func newReleaseCommand() simplecobra.Commander {
+
+	var (
+		step     int
+		skipPush bool
+		try      bool
+	)
+
+	return &simpleCommand{
+		name:  "release",
+		short: "Release a new version of Hugo.",
+		run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+			rel, err := releaser.New(skipPush, try, step)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
+			return rel.Run()
+		},
+		withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+			cmd.Hidden = true
+			cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&skipPush, "skip-push", "", false, "skip pushing to remote")
+			cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&try, "try", "", false, "no changes")
+			cmd.PersistentFlags().IntVarP(&step, "step", "", 0, "step to run (1: set new version 2: prepare next dev version)")
 		},
 	}
-
-	r.cmd.RunE = func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-		return r.release()
-	}
-
-	r.cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&r.skipPush, "skip-push", "", false, "skip pushing to remote")
-	r.cmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&r.try, "try", "", false, "no changes")
-	r.cmd.PersistentFlags().IntVarP(&r.step, "step", "", 0, "step to run (1: set new version 2: prepare next dev version)")
-
-	return r
-}
-
-func (c *releaseCommandeer) getCommand() *cobra.Command {
-	return c.cmd
-}
-
-func (c *releaseCommandeer) flagsToConfig(cfg config.Provider) {
-}
-
-func (r *releaseCommandeer) release() error {
-	rel, err := releaser.New(r.skipPush, r.try, r.step)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	return rel.Run()
 }
diff --git a/commands/release_noop.go b/commands/release_noop.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 176dc9794..000000000
--- a/commands/release_noop.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,21 +0,0 @@
-//go:build !release
-// +build !release
-
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-func createReleaser() cmder {
-	return &nilCommand{}
-}
diff --git a/commands/server.go b/commands/server.go
index 121a649d4..81a5120ef 100644
--- a/commands/server.go
+++ b/commands/server.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -16,357 +16,217 @@ package commands
 import (
 	"bytes"
 	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	"io/ioutil"
 	"net"
 	"net/http"
 	"net/url"
 	"os"
+	"sync"
+	"sync/atomic"
+
 	"os/signal"
 	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"regexp"
-	"runtime"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
-	"sync"
 	"syscall"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
+	"github.com/bep/debounce"
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/urls"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/files"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
-	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/filesystems"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/livereload"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/transform"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/transform/livereloadinject"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
+	"github.com/spf13/fsync"
+	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
+	"golang.org/x/sync/semaphore"
 )
 
-type serverCmd struct {
-	// Can be used to stop the server. Useful in tests
-	stop chan bool
-
-	disableLiveReload  bool
-	navigateToChanged  bool
-	renderToDisk       bool
-	renderStaticToDisk bool
-	serverAppend       bool
-	serverInterface    string
-	serverPort         int
-	liveReloadPort     int
-	serverWatch        bool
-	noHTTPCache        bool
-
-	disableFastRender   bool
-	disableBrowserError bool
-
-	*baseBuilderCmd
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newServerCmd() *serverCmd {
-	return b.newServerCmdSignaled(nil)
-}
-
-func (b *commandsBuilder) newServerCmdSignaled(stop chan bool) *serverCmd {
-	cc := &serverCmd{stop: stop}
+var (
+	logErrorRe                    = regexp.MustCompile(`(?s)ERROR \d{4}/\d{2}/\d{2} \d{2}:\d{2}:\d{2} `)
+	logDuplicateTemplateExecuteRe = regexp.MustCompile(`: template: .*?:\d+:\d+: executing ".*?"`)
+	logDuplicateTemplateParseRe   = regexp.MustCompile(`: template: .*?:\d+:\d*`)
+)
 
-	cc.baseBuilderCmd = b.newBuilderCmd(&cobra.Command{
-		Use:     "server",
-		Aliases: []string{"serve"},
-		Short:   "A high performance webserver",
-		Long: `Hugo provides its own webserver which builds and serves the site.
-While hugo server is high performance, it is a webserver with limited options.
-Many run it in production, but the standard behavior is for people to use it
-in development and use a more full featured server such as Nginx or Caddy.
+var logReplacer = strings.NewReplacer(
+	"can't", "can’t", // Chroma lexer doesn't do well with "can't"
+	"*hugolib.pageState", "page.Page", // Page is the public interface.
+	"Rebuild failed:", "",
+)
 
-'hugo server' will avoid writing the rendered and served content to disk,
-preferring to store it in memory.
+const (
+	configChangeConfig = "config file"
+	configChangeGoMod  = "go.mod file"
+	configChangeGoWork = "go work file"
+)
 
-By default hugo will also watch your files for any changes you make and
-automatically rebuild the site. It will then live reload any open browser pages
-and push the latest content to them. As most Hugo sites are built in a fraction
-of a second, you will be able to save and see your changes nearly instantly.`,
-		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			err := cc.server(cmd, args)
-			if err != nil && cc.stop != nil {
-				cc.stop <- true
+func newHugoBuilder(r *rootCommand, s *serverCommand, onConfigLoaded ...func(reloaded bool) error) *hugoBuilder {
+	return &hugoBuilder{
+		r:              r,
+		s:              s,
+		visitedURLs:    types.NewEvictingStringQueue(100),
+		fullRebuildSem: semaphore.NewWeighted(1),
+		debounce:       debounce.New(4 * time.Second),
+		onConfigLoaded: func(reloaded bool) error {
+			for _, wc := range onConfigLoaded {
+				if err := wc(reloaded); err != nil {
+					return err
+				}
 			}
-			return err
+			return nil
 		},
-	})
-
-	cc.cmd.Flags().IntVarP(&cc.serverPort, "port", "p", 1313, "port on which the server will listen")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().IntVar(&cc.liveReloadPort, "liveReloadPort", -1, "port for live reloading (i.e. 443 in HTTPS proxy situations)")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&cc.serverInterface, "bind", "", "127.0.0.1", "interface to which the server will bind")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&cc.serverWatch, "watch", "w", true, "watch filesystem for changes and recreate as needed")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.noHTTPCache, "noHTTPCache", false, "prevent HTTP caching")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&cc.serverAppend, "appendPort", "", true, "append port to baseURL")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.disableLiveReload, "disableLiveReload", false, "watch without enabling live browser reload on rebuild")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.navigateToChanged, "navigateToChanged", false, "navigate to changed content file on live browser reload")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.renderToDisk, "renderToDisk", false, "serve all files from disk (default is from memory)")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.renderStaticToDisk, "renderStaticToDisk", false, "serve static files from disk and dynamic files from memory")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.disableFastRender, "disableFastRender", false, "enables full re-renders on changes")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&cc.disableBrowserError, "disableBrowserError", false, "do not show build errors in the browser")
-
-	cc.cmd.Flags().String("memstats", "", "log memory usage to this file")
-	cc.cmd.Flags().String("meminterval", "100ms", "interval to poll memory usage (requires --memstats), valid time units are \"ns\", \"us\" (or \"µs\"), \"ms\", \"s\", \"m\", \"h\".")
-
-	return cc
+	}
 }
 
-type filesOnlyFs struct {
-	fs http.FileSystem
+func newServerCommand() *serverCommand {
+	var c *serverCommand
+	c = &serverCommand{
+		quit: make(chan bool),
+	}
+	return c
 }
 
-type noDirFile struct {
-	http.File
+type countingStatFs struct {
+	afero.Fs
+	statCounter uint64
 }
 
-func (fs filesOnlyFs) Open(name string) (http.File, error) {
-	f, err := fs.fs.Open(name)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
+func (fs *countingStatFs) Stat(name string) (os.FileInfo, error) {
+	f, err := fs.Fs.Stat(name)
+	if err == nil {
+		if !f.IsDir() {
+			atomic.AddUint64(&fs.statCounter, 1)
+		}
 	}
-	return noDirFile{f}, nil
+	return f, err
 }
 
-func (f noDirFile) Readdir(count int) ([]os.FileInfo, error) {
-	return nil, nil
+// dynamicEvents contains events that is considered dynamic, as in "not static".
+// Both of these categories will trigger a new build, but the asset events
+// does not fit into the "navigate to changed" logic.
+type dynamicEvents struct {
+	ContentEvents []fsnotify.Event
+	AssetEvents   []fsnotify.Event
 }
 
-func (sc *serverCmd) server(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-	// If a Destination is provided via flag write to disk
-	destination, _ := cmd.Flags().GetString("destination")
-	if destination != "" {
-		sc.renderToDisk = true
-	}
-
-	var serverCfgInit sync.Once
+type fileChangeDetector struct {
+	sync.Mutex
+	current map[string]string
+	prev    map[string]string
 
-	cfgInit := func(c *commandeer) (rerr error) {
-		c.Set("renderToMemory", !(sc.renderToDisk || sc.renderStaticToDisk))
-		c.Set("renderStaticToDisk", sc.renderStaticToDisk)
-		if cmd.Flags().Changed("navigateToChanged") {
-			c.Set("navigateToChanged", sc.navigateToChanged)
-		}
-		if cmd.Flags().Changed("disableLiveReload") {
-			c.Set("disableLiveReload", sc.disableLiveReload)
-		}
-		if cmd.Flags().Changed("disableFastRender") {
-			c.Set("disableFastRender", sc.disableFastRender)
-		}
-		if cmd.Flags().Changed("disableBrowserError") {
-			c.Set("disableBrowserError", sc.disableBrowserError)
-		}
-		if sc.serverWatch {
-			c.Set("watch", true)
-		}
-
-		// TODO(bep) see issue 9901
-		// cfgInit is called twice, before and after the languages have been initialized.
-		// The servers (below) can not be initialized before we
-		// know if we're configured in a multihost setup.
-		if len(c.languages) == 0 {
-			return nil
-		}
-
-		// We can only do this once.
-		serverCfgInit.Do(func() {
-			c.serverPorts = make([]serverPortListener, 1)
-
-			if c.languages.IsMultihost() {
-				if !sc.serverAppend {
-					rerr = newSystemError("--appendPort=false not supported when in multihost mode")
-				}
-				c.serverPorts = make([]serverPortListener, len(c.languages))
-			}
-
-			currentServerPort := sc.serverPort
-
-			for i := 0; i < len(c.serverPorts); i++ {
-				l, err := net.Listen("tcp", net.JoinHostPort(sc.serverInterface, strconv.Itoa(currentServerPort)))
-				if err == nil {
-					c.serverPorts[i] = serverPortListener{ln: l, p: currentServerPort}
-				} else {
-					if i == 0 && sc.cmd.Flags().Changed("port") {
-						// port set explicitly by user -- he/she probably meant it!
-						rerr = newSystemErrorF("Server startup failed: %s", err)
-						return
-					}
-					c.logger.Println("port", sc.serverPort, "already in use, attempting to use an available port")
-					l, sp, err := helpers.TCPListen()
-					if err != nil {
-						rerr = newSystemError("Unable to find alternative port to use:", err)
-						return
-					}
-					c.serverPorts[i] = serverPortListener{ln: l, p: sp.Port}
-				}
-
-				currentServerPort = c.serverPorts[i].p + 1
-			}
-		})
-
-		if rerr != nil {
-			return
-		}
-
-		c.Set("port", sc.serverPort)
-		if sc.liveReloadPort != -1 {
-			c.Set("liveReloadPort", sc.liveReloadPort)
-		} else {
-			c.Set("liveReloadPort", c.serverPorts[0].p)
-		}
-
-		isMultiHost := c.languages.IsMultihost()
-		for i, language := range c.languages {
-			var serverPort int
-			if isMultiHost {
-				serverPort = c.serverPorts[i].p
-			} else {
-				serverPort = c.serverPorts[0].p
-			}
+	irrelevantRe *regexp.Regexp
+}
 
-			baseURL, err := sc.fixURL(language, sc.baseURL, serverPort)
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil
-			}
-			if isMultiHost {
-				language.Set("baseURL", baseURL)
-			}
-			if i == 0 {
-				c.Set("baseURL", baseURL)
-			}
-		}
+func (f *fileChangeDetector) OnFileClose(name, md5sum string) {
+	f.Lock()
+	defer f.Unlock()
+	f.current[name] = md5sum
+}
 
+func (f *fileChangeDetector) PrepareNew() {
+	if f == nil {
 		return
 	}
 
-	if err := memStats(); err != nil {
-		jww.WARN.Println("memstats error:", err)
-	}
-
-	// silence errors in cobra so we can handle them here
-	cmd.SilenceErrors = true
+	f.Lock()
+	defer f.Unlock()
 
-	c, err := initializeConfig(true, true, true, &sc.hugoBuilderCommon, sc, cfgInit)
-	if err != nil {
-		cmd.PrintErrln("Error:", err.Error())
-		return err
+	if f.current == nil {
+		f.current = make(map[string]string)
+		f.prev = make(map[string]string)
+		return
 	}
 
-	err = func() error {
-		defer c.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Built")
-		err := c.serverBuild()
-		if err != nil {
-			cmd.PrintErrln("Error:", err.Error())
-		}
-		return err
-	}()
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
+	f.prev = make(map[string]string)
+	for k, v := range f.current {
+		f.prev[k] = v
 	}
+	f.current = make(map[string]string)
+}
 
-	// Watch runs its own server as part of the routine
-	if sc.serverWatch {
-
-		watchDirs, err := c.getDirList()
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-
-		watchGroups := helpers.ExtractAndGroupRootPaths(watchDirs)
-
-		for _, group := range watchGroups {
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("Watching for changes in %s\n", group)
-		}
-		watcher, err := c.newWatcher(sc.poll, watchDirs...)
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
+func (f *fileChangeDetector) changed() []string {
+	if f == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	f.Lock()
+	defer f.Unlock()
+	var c []string
+	for k, v := range f.current {
+		vv, found := f.prev[k]
+		if !found || v != vv {
+			c = append(c, k)
 		}
-
-		defer watcher.Close()
-
 	}
 
-	return c.serve(sc)
+	return f.filterIrrelevant(c)
 }
 
-func getRootWatchDirsStr(baseDir string, watchDirs []string) string {
-	relWatchDirs := make([]string, len(watchDirs))
-	for i, dir := range watchDirs {
-		relWatchDirs[i], _ = paths.GetRelativePath(dir, baseDir)
+func (f *fileChangeDetector) filterIrrelevant(in []string) []string {
+	var filtered []string
+	for _, v := range in {
+		if !f.irrelevantRe.MatchString(v) {
+			filtered = append(filtered, v)
+		}
 	}
-
-	return strings.Join(helpers.UniqueStringsSorted(helpers.ExtractRootPaths(relWatchDirs)), ",")
+	return filtered
 }
 
 type fileServer struct {
 	baseURLs      []string
 	roots         []string
 	errorTemplate func(err any) (io.Reader, error)
-	c             *commandeer
-	s             *serverCmd
-}
-
-func (f *fileServer) rewriteRequest(r *http.Request, toPath string) *http.Request {
-	r2 := new(http.Request)
-	*r2 = *r
-	r2.URL = new(url.URL)
-	*r2.URL = *r.URL
-	r2.URL.Path = toPath
-	r2.Header.Set("X-Rewrite-Original-URI", r.URL.RequestURI())
-
-	return r2
+	c             *serverCommand
 }
 
 func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string, string, error) {
+	r := f.c.r
+	conf := f.c.conf()
 	baseURL := f.baseURLs[i]
 	root := f.roots[i]
 	port := f.c.serverPorts[i].p
 	listener := f.c.serverPorts[i].ln
+	logger := f.c.r.logger
 
-	// For logging only.
-	// TODO(bep) consolidate.
-	publishDir := f.c.Cfg.GetString("publishDir")
-	publishDirStatic := f.c.Cfg.GetString("publishDirStatic")
-	workingDir := f.c.Cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-
-	if root != "" {
-		publishDir = filepath.Join(publishDir, root)
-		publishDirStatic = filepath.Join(publishDirStatic, root)
-	}
-	absPublishDir := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDir)
-	absPublishDirStatic := paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDirStatic)
-
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("Environment: %q", f.c.hugo().Deps.Site.Hugo().Environment)
+	r.Printf("Environment: %q", f.c.hugoTry().Deps.Site.Hugo().Environment)
 
 	if i == 0 {
-		if f.s.renderToDisk {
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Serving pages from " + absPublishDir)
-		} else if f.s.renderStaticToDisk {
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Serving pages from memory and static files from " + absPublishDirStatic)
+		if f.c.renderToDisk {
+			r.Println("Serving pages from disk")
+		} else if f.c.renderStaticToDisk {
+			r.Println("Serving pages from memory and static files from disk")
 		} else {
-			jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Serving pages from memory")
+			r.Println("Serving pages from memory")
 		}
 	}
 
-	httpFs := afero.NewHttpFs(f.c.publishDirServerFs)
+	httpFs := afero.NewHttpFs(conf.fs.PublishDirServer)
 	fs := filesOnlyFs{httpFs.Dir(path.Join("/", root))}
-
 	if i == 0 && f.c.fastRenderMode {
-		jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Running in Fast Render Mode. For full rebuilds on change: hugo server --disableFastRender")
+		r.Println("Running in Fast Render Mode. For full rebuilds on change: hugo server --disableFastRender")
 	}
 
 	// We're only interested in the path
 	u, err := url.Parse(baseURL)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, "", "", fmt.Errorf("Invalid baseURL: %w", err)
+		return nil, nil, "", "", fmt.Errorf("invalid baseURL: %w", err)
 	}
 
 	decorate := func(h http.Handler) http.Handler {
@@ -375,16 +235,16 @@ func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string
 				// First check the error state
 				err := f.c.getErrorWithContext()
 				if err != nil {
-					f.c.wasError = true
+					f.c.errState.setWasErr(false)
 					w.WriteHeader(500)
 					r, err := f.errorTemplate(err)
 					if err != nil {
-						f.c.logger.Errorln(err)
+						logger.Errorln(err)
 					}
 
 					port = 1313
-					if !f.c.paused {
-						port = f.c.Cfg.GetInt("liveReloadPort")
+					if !f.c.errState.isPaused() {
+						port = conf.configs.Base.Internal.LiveReloadPort
 					}
 					lr := *u
 					lr.Host = fmt.Sprintf("%s:%d", lr.Hostname(), port)
@@ -394,19 +254,21 @@ func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string
 				}
 			}
 
-			if f.s.noHTTPCache {
+			if f.c.noHTTPCache {
 				w.Header().Set("Cache-Control", "no-store, no-cache, must-revalidate, max-age=0")
 				w.Header().Set("Pragma", "no-cache")
 			}
 
+			serverConfig := f.c.conf().configs.Base.Server
+
 			// Ignore any query params for the operations below.
 			requestURI, _ := url.PathUnescape(strings.TrimSuffix(r.RequestURI, "?"+r.URL.RawQuery))
 
-			for _, header := range f.c.serverConfig.MatchHeaders(requestURI) {
+			for _, header := range serverConfig.MatchHeaders(requestURI) {
 				w.Header().Set(header.Key, header.Value)
 			}
 
-			if redirect := f.c.serverConfig.MatchRedirect(requestURI); !redirect.IsZero() {
+			if redirect := serverConfig.MatchRedirect(requestURI); !redirect.IsZero() {
 				// fullName := filepath.Join(dir, filepath.FromSlash(path.Clean("/"+name)))
 				doRedirect := true
 				// This matches Netlify's behaviour and is needed for SPA behaviour.
@@ -416,7 +278,7 @@ func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string
 					if root != "" {
 						path = filepath.Join(root, path)
 					}
-					fs := f.c.publishDirServerFs
+					fs := f.c.conf().getFs().PublishDir
 
 					fi, err := fs.Stat(path)
 
@@ -459,7 +321,7 @@ func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string
 
 			}
 
-			if f.c.fastRenderMode && f.c.buildErr == nil {
+			if f.c.fastRenderMode && f.c.errState.buildErr() == nil {
 				if strings.HasSuffix(requestURI, "/") || strings.HasSuffix(requestURI, "html") || strings.HasSuffix(requestURI, "htm") {
 					if !f.c.visitedURLs.Contains(requestURI) {
 						// If not already on stack, re-render that single page.
@@ -488,48 +350,368 @@ func (f *fileServer) createEndpoint(i int) (*http.ServeMux, net.Listener, string
 	} else {
 		mu.Handle(u.Path, http.StripPrefix(u.Path, fileserver))
 	}
+	if r.IsTestRun() {
+		var shutDownOnce sync.Once
+		mu.HandleFunc("/__stop", func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+			shutDownOnce.Do(func() {
+				close(f.c.quit)
+			})
+		})
+	}
 
-	endpoint := net.JoinHostPort(f.s.serverInterface, strconv.Itoa(port))
+	endpoint := net.JoinHostPort(f.c.serverInterface, strconv.Itoa(port))
 
 	return mu, listener, u.String(), endpoint, nil
 }
 
-var (
-	logErrorRe                    = regexp.MustCompile(`(?s)ERROR \d{4}/\d{2}/\d{2} \d{2}:\d{2}:\d{2} `)
-	logDuplicateTemplateExecuteRe = regexp.MustCompile(`: template: .*?:\d+:\d+: executing ".*?"`)
-	logDuplicateTemplateParseRe   = regexp.MustCompile(`: template: .*?:\d+:\d*`)
-)
+func (f *fileServer) rewriteRequest(r *http.Request, toPath string) *http.Request {
+	r2 := new(http.Request)
+	*r2 = *r
+	r2.URL = new(url.URL)
+	*r2.URL = *r.URL
+	r2.URL.Path = toPath
+	r2.Header.Set("X-Rewrite-Original-URI", r.URL.RequestURI())
 
-func removeErrorPrefixFromLog(content string) string {
-	return logErrorRe.ReplaceAllLiteralString(content, "")
+	return r2
 }
 
-var logReplacer = strings.NewReplacer(
-	"can't", "can’t", // Chroma lexer doesn't do well with "can't"
-	"*hugolib.pageState", "page.Page", // Page is the public interface.
-	"Rebuild failed:", "",
-)
+type filesOnlyFs struct {
+	fs http.FileSystem
+}
 
-func cleanErrorLog(content string) string {
-	content = strings.ReplaceAll(content, "\n", " ")
-	content = logReplacer.Replace(content)
-	content = logDuplicateTemplateExecuteRe.ReplaceAllString(content, "")
-	content = logDuplicateTemplateParseRe.ReplaceAllString(content, "")
-	seen := make(map[string]bool)
-	parts := strings.Split(content, ": ")
-	keep := make([]string, 0, len(parts))
-	for _, part := range parts {
-		if seen[part] {
-			continue
+func (fs filesOnlyFs) Open(name string) (http.File, error) {
+	f, err := fs.fs.Open(name)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return noDirFile{f}, nil
+}
+
+type noDirFile struct {
+	http.File
+}
+
+func (f noDirFile) Readdir(count int) ([]os.FileInfo, error) {
+	return nil, nil
+}
+
+type serverCommand struct {
+	r *rootCommand
+
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+
+	*hugoBuilder
+
+	quit         chan bool // Closed when the server should shut down. Used in tests only.
+	serverPorts  []serverPortListener
+	doLiveReload bool
+
+	// Flags.
+
+	renderToDisk        bool
+	renderStaticToDisk  bool
+	navigateToChanged   bool
+	serverAppend        bool
+	serverInterface     string
+	serverPort          int
+	liveReloadPort      int
+	serverWatch         bool
+	noHTTPCache         bool
+	disableLiveReload   bool
+	disableFastRender   bool
+	disableBrowserError bool
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) Name() string {
+	return "server"
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	err := func() error {
+		defer c.r.timeTrack(time.Now(), "Built")
+		err := c.build()
+		if err != nil {
+			c.r.Println("Error:", err.Error())
 		}
-		seen[part] = true
-		keep = append(keep, part)
+		return err
+	}()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
-	return strings.Join(keep, ": ")
+
+	// Watch runs its own server as part of the routine
+	if c.serverWatch {
+
+		watchDirs, err := c.getDirList()
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		watchGroups := helpers.ExtractAndGroupRootPaths(watchDirs)
+
+		for _, group := range watchGroups {
+			c.r.Printf("Watching for changes in %s\n", group)
+		}
+		watcher, err := c.newWatcher(c.r.poll, watchDirs...)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		defer watcher.Close()
+
+	}
+
+	return c.serve()
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "A high performance webserver"
+	cmd.Long = `Hugo provides its own webserver which builds and serves the site.
+While hugo server is high performance, it is a webserver with limited options.
+Many run it in production, but the standard behavior is for people to use it
+in development and use a more full featured server such as Nginx or Caddy.
+
+'hugo server' will avoid writing the rendered and served content to disk,
+preferring to store it in memory.
+
+By default hugo will also watch your files for any changes you make and
+automatically rebuild the site. It will then live reload any open browser pages
+and push the latest content to them. As most Hugo sites are built in a fraction
+of a second, you will be able to save and see your changes nearly instantly.`
+	cmd.Aliases = []string{"serve"}
+
+	cmd.Flags().IntVarP(&c.serverPort, "port", "p", 1313, "port on which the server will listen")
+	cmd.Flags().IntVar(&c.liveReloadPort, "liveReloadPort", -1, "port for live reloading (i.e. 443 in HTTPS proxy situations)")
+	cmd.Flags().StringVarP(&c.serverInterface, "bind", "", "127.0.0.1", "interface to which the server will bind")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&c.serverWatch, "watch", "w", true, "watch filesystem for changes and recreate as needed")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.noHTTPCache, "noHTTPCache", false, "prevent HTTP caching")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&c.serverAppend, "appendPort", "", true, "append port to baseURL")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.disableLiveReload, "disableLiveReload", false, "watch without enabling live browser reload on rebuild")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.navigateToChanged, "navigateToChanged", false, "navigate to changed content file on live browser reload")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.renderToDisk, "renderToDisk", false, "serve all files from disk (default is from memory)")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.renderStaticToDisk, "renderStaticToDisk", false, "serve static files from disk and dynamic files from memory")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.disableFastRender, "disableFastRender", false, "enables full re-renders on changes")
+	cmd.Flags().BoolVar(&c.disableBrowserError, "disableBrowserError", false, "do not show build errors in the browser")
+
+	cmd.Flags().String("memstats", "", "log memory usage to this file")
+	cmd.Flags().String("meminterval", "100ms", "interval to poll memory usage (requires --memstats), valid time units are \"ns\", \"us\" (or \"µs\"), \"ms\", \"s\", \"m\", \"h\".")
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.r = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+
+	c.hugoBuilder = newHugoBuilder(
+		c.r,
+		c,
+		func(reloaded bool) error {
+			if !reloaded {
+				if err := c.createServerPorts(cd); err != nil {
+					return err
+				}
+			}
+			if err := c.setBaseURLsInConfig(); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
+			if !reloaded && c.fastRenderMode {
+				c.conf().fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewHashingFs(c.conf().fs.PublishDir, c.changeDetector)
+				c.conf().fs.PublishDirStatic = hugofs.NewHashingFs(c.conf().fs.PublishDirStatic, c.changeDetector)
+			}
+
+			return nil
+		},
+	)
+
+	destinationFlag := cd.CobraCommand.Flags().Lookup("destination")
+	c.renderToDisk = c.renderToDisk || (destinationFlag != nil && destinationFlag.Changed)
+	c.doLiveReload = !c.disableLiveReload
+	c.fastRenderMode = !c.disableFastRender
+	c.showErrorInBrowser = c.doLiveReload && !c.disableBrowserError
+	if c.r.environment == "" {
+		c.r.environment = hugo.EnvironmentDevelopment
+	}
+
+	if c.fastRenderMode {
+		// For now, fast render mode only. It should, however, be fast enough
+		// for the full variant, too.
+		c.changeDetector = &fileChangeDetector{
+			// We use this detector to decide to do a Hot reload of a single path or not.
+			// We need to filter out source maps and possibly some other to be able
+			// to make that decision.
+			irrelevantRe: regexp.MustCompile(`\.map$`),
+		}
+
+		c.changeDetector.PrepareNew()
+
+	}
+
+	err := c.loadConfig(cd, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) setBaseURLsInConfig() error {
+	if len(c.serverPorts) == 0 {
+		panic("no server ports set")
+	}
+	isMultiHost := c.conf().configs.IsMultihost
+	for i, language := range c.conf().configs.Languages {
+		var serverPort int
+		if isMultiHost {
+			serverPort = c.serverPorts[i].p
+		} else {
+			serverPort = c.serverPorts[0].p
+		}
+		langConfig := c.conf().configs.LanguageConfigMap[language.Lang]
+		baseURLStr, err := c.fixURL(langConfig.BaseURL, c.r.baseURL, serverPort)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil
+		}
+		baseURL, err := urls.NewBaseURLFromString(baseURLStr)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("failed to create baseURL from %q: %s", baseURLStr, err)
+		}
+
+		baseURLLiveReload := baseURL
+		if c.liveReloadPort != -1 {
+			baseURLLiveReload, _ = baseURLLiveReload.WithPort(c.liveReloadPort)
+		}
+		langConfig.C.SetBaseURL(baseURL, baseURLLiveReload)
+	}
+	return nil
 }
 
-func (c *commandeer) serve(s *serverCmd) error {
-	isMultiHost := c.hugo().IsMultihost()
+func (c *serverCommand) getErrorWithContext() any {
+	errCount := c.errCount()
+
+	if errCount == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	m := make(map[string]any)
+
+	//xwm["Error"] = errors.New(cleanErrorLog(removeErrorPrefixFromLog(c.r.logger.Errors())))
+	m["Error"] = errors.New(cleanErrorLog(removeErrorPrefixFromLog(c.r.logger.Errors())))
+	m["Version"] = hugo.BuildVersionString()
+	ferrors := herrors.UnwrapFileErrorsWithErrorContext(c.errState.buildErr())
+	m["Files"] = ferrors
+
+	return m
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) createServerPorts(cd *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	flags := cd.CobraCommand.Flags()
+	isMultiHost := c.conf().configs.IsMultihost
+	c.serverPorts = make([]serverPortListener, 1)
+	if isMultiHost {
+		if !c.serverAppend {
+			return errors.New("--appendPort=false not supported when in multihost mode")
+		}
+		c.serverPorts = make([]serverPortListener, len(c.conf().configs.Languages))
+	}
+	currentServerPort := c.serverPort
+	for i := 0; i < len(c.serverPorts); i++ {
+		l, err := net.Listen("tcp", net.JoinHostPort(c.serverInterface, strconv.Itoa(currentServerPort)))
+		if err == nil {
+			c.serverPorts[i] = serverPortListener{ln: l, p: currentServerPort}
+		} else {
+			if i == 0 && flags.Changed("port") {
+				// port set explicitly by user -- he/she probably meant it!
+				return fmt.Errorf("server startup failed: %s", err)
+			}
+			c.r.Println("port", currentServerPort, "already in use, attempting to use an available port")
+			l, sp, err := helpers.TCPListen()
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("unable to find alternative port to use: %s", err)
+			}
+			c.serverPorts[i] = serverPortListener{ln: l, p: sp.Port}
+		}
+
+		currentServerPort = c.serverPorts[i].p + 1
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// fixURL massages the baseURL into a form needed for serving
+// all pages correctly.
+func (c *serverCommand) fixURL(baseURL, s string, port int) (string, error) {
+	useLocalhost := false
+	if s == "" {
+		s = baseURL
+		useLocalhost = true
+	}
+
+	if !strings.HasSuffix(s, "/") {
+		s = s + "/"
+	}
+
+	// do an initial parse of the input string
+	u, err := url.Parse(s)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", err
+	}
+
+	// if no Host is defined, then assume that no schema or double-slash were
+	// present in the url.  Add a double-slash and make a best effort attempt.
+	if u.Host == "" && s != "/" {
+		s = "//" + s
+
+		u, err = url.Parse(s)
+		if err != nil {
+			return "", err
+		}
+	}
+
+	if useLocalhost {
+		if u.Scheme == "https" {
+			u.Scheme = "http"
+		}
+		u.Host = "localhost"
+	}
+
+	if c.serverAppend {
+		if strings.Contains(u.Host, ":") {
+			u.Host, _, err = net.SplitHostPort(u.Host)
+			if err != nil {
+				return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to split baseURL hostport: %w", err)
+			}
+		}
+		u.Host += fmt.Sprintf(":%d", port)
+	}
+
+	return u.String(), nil
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) partialReRender(urls ...string) error {
+	defer func() {
+		c.errState.setWasErr(false)
+	}()
+	c.errState.setBuildErr(nil)
+	visited := make(map[string]bool)
+	for _, url := range urls {
+		visited[url] = true
+	}
+
+	// Note: We do not set NoBuildLock as the file lock is not acquired at this stage.
+	return c.hugo().Build(hugolib.BuildCfg{NoBuildLock: false, RecentlyVisited: visited, PartialReRender: true, ErrRecovery: c.errState.wasErr()})
+}
+
+func (c *serverCommand) serve() error {
+	isMultiHost := c.conf().configs.IsMultihost
+	var err error
+	h, err := c.r.HugFromConfig(c.conf())
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	r := c.r
 
 	var (
 		baseURLs []string
@@ -537,13 +719,13 @@ func (c *commandeer) serve(s *serverCmd) error {
 	)
 
 	if isMultiHost {
-		for _, s := range c.hugo().Sites {
-			baseURLs = append(baseURLs, s.BaseURL.String())
-			roots = append(roots, s.Language().Lang)
+		for _, l := range c.conf().configs.ConfigLangs() {
+			baseURLs = append(baseURLs, l.BaseURL().String())
+			roots = append(roots, l.Language().Lang)
 		}
 	} else {
-		s := c.hugo().Sites[0]
-		baseURLs = []string{s.BaseURL.String()}
+		l := c.conf().configs.GetFirstLanguageConfig()
+		baseURLs = []string{l.BaseURL().String()}
 		roots = []string{""}
 	}
 
@@ -565,13 +747,12 @@ func (c *commandeer) serve(s *serverCmd) error {
 		}
 		return errTempl, templHandler
 	}
-	errTempl, templHandler = getErrorTemplateAndHandler(c.hugo())
+	errTempl, templHandler = getErrorTemplateAndHandler(h)
 
 	srv := &fileServer{
 		baseURLs: baseURLs,
 		roots:    roots,
 		c:        c,
-		s:        s,
 		errorTemplate: func(ctx any) (io.Reader, error) {
 			// hugoTry does not block, getErrorTemplateAndHandler will fall back
 			// to cached values if nil.
@@ -582,7 +763,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) serve(s *serverCmd) error {
 		},
 	}
 
-	doLiveReload := !c.Cfg.GetBool("disableLiveReload")
+	doLiveReload := !c.disableLiveReload
 
 	if doLiveReload {
 		livereload.Initialize()
@@ -611,7 +792,7 @@ func (c *commandeer) serve(s *serverCmd) error {
 			mu.HandleFunc(u.Path+"/livereload.js", livereload.ServeJS)
 			mu.HandleFunc(u.Path+"/livereload", livereload.Handler)
 		}
-		jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("Web Server is available at %s (bind address %s)\n", serverURL, s.serverInterface)
+		r.Printf("Web Server is available at %s (bind address %s)\n", serverURL, c.serverInterface)
 		wg1.Go(func() error {
 			err = srv.Serve(listener)
 			if err != nil && err != http.ErrServerClosed {
@@ -621,34 +802,46 @@ func (c *commandeer) serve(s *serverCmd) error {
 		})
 	}
 
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Press Ctrl+C to stop")
+	if c.r.IsTestRun() {
+		// Write a .ready file to disk to signal ready status.
+		// This is where the test is run from.
+		testInfo := map[string]any{
+			"baseURLs": srv.baseURLs,
+		}
 
-	err := func() error {
-		if s.stop != nil {
-			for {
-				select {
-				case <-sigs:
-					return nil
-				case <-s.stop:
-					return nil
-				case <-ctx.Done():
-					return ctx.Err()
-				}
+		dir := os.Getenv("WORK")
+		if dir != "" {
+			readyFile := filepath.Join(dir, ".ready")
+			// encode the test info as JSON into the .ready file.
+			b, err := json.Marshal(testInfo)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
 			}
-		} else {
-			for {
-				select {
-				case <-sigs:
-					return nil
-				case <-ctx.Done():
-					return ctx.Err()
-				}
+			err = ioutil.WriteFile(readyFile, b, 0777)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+
+	}
+
+	r.Println("Press Ctrl+C to stop")
+
+	err = func() error {
+		for {
+			select {
+			case <-c.quit:
+				return nil
+			case <-sigs:
+				return nil
+			case <-ctx.Done():
+				return ctx.Err()
 			}
 		}
 	}()
 
 	if err != nil {
-		jww.ERROR.Println("Error:", err)
+		r.Println("Error:", err)
 	}
 
 	if h := c.hugoTry(); h != nil {
@@ -672,89 +865,193 @@ func (c *commandeer) serve(s *serverCmd) error {
 	return err2
 }
 
-// fixURL massages the baseURL into a form needed for serving
-// all pages correctly.
-func (sc *serverCmd) fixURL(cfg config.Provider, s string, port int) (string, error) {
-	useLocalhost := false
-	if s == "" {
-		s = cfg.GetString("baseURL")
-		useLocalhost = true
-	}
+type serverPortListener struct {
+	p  int
+	ln net.Listener
+}
 
-	if !strings.HasSuffix(s, "/") {
-		s = s + "/"
-	}
+type staticSyncer struct {
+	c *hugoBuilder
+}
 
-	// do an initial parse of the input string
-	u, err := url.Parse(s)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", err
-	}
+func (s *staticSyncer) isStatic(filename string) bool {
+	return s.c.hugo().BaseFs.SourceFilesystems.IsStatic(filename)
+}
 
-	// if no Host is defined, then assume that no schema or double-slash were
-	// present in the url.  Add a double-slash and make a best effort attempt.
-	if u.Host == "" && s != "/" {
-		s = "//" + s
+func (s *staticSyncer) syncsStaticEvents(staticEvents []fsnotify.Event) error {
+	c := s.c
 
-		u, err = url.Parse(s)
-		if err != nil {
-			return "", err
+	syncFn := func(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error) {
+		publishDir := helpers.FilePathSeparator
+
+		if sourceFs.PublishFolder != "" {
+			publishDir = filepath.Join(publishDir, sourceFs.PublishFolder)
 		}
-	}
 
-	if useLocalhost {
-		if u.Scheme == "https" {
-			u.Scheme = "http"
+		conf := s.c.conf().configs.Base
+		fs := s.c.conf().fs
+		syncer := fsync.NewSyncer()
+		syncer.NoTimes = conf.NoTimes
+		syncer.NoChmod = conf.NoChmod
+		syncer.ChmodFilter = chmodFilter
+		syncer.SrcFs = sourceFs.Fs
+		syncer.DestFs = fs.PublishDir
+		if c.s != nil && c.s.renderStaticToDisk {
+			syncer.DestFs = fs.PublishDirStatic
 		}
-		u.Host = "localhost"
-	}
 
-	if sc.serverAppend {
-		if strings.Contains(u.Host, ":") {
-			u.Host, _, err = net.SplitHostPort(u.Host)
-			if err != nil {
-				return "", fmt.Errorf("Failed to split baseURL hostpost: %w", err)
+		// prevent spamming the log on changes
+		logger := helpers.NewDistinctErrorLogger()
+
+		for _, ev := range staticEvents {
+			// Due to our approach of layering both directories and the content's rendered output
+			// into one we can't accurately remove a file not in one of the source directories.
+			// If a file is in the local static dir and also in the theme static dir and we remove
+			// it from one of those locations we expect it to still exist in the destination
+			//
+			// If Hugo generates a file (from the content dir) over a static file
+			// the content generated file should take precedence.
+			//
+			// Because we are now watching and handling individual events it is possible that a static
+			// event that occupies the same path as a content generated file will take precedence
+			// until a regeneration of the content takes places.
+			//
+			// Hugo assumes that these cases are very rare and will permit this bad behavior
+			// The alternative is to track every single file and which pipeline rendered it
+			// and then to handle conflict resolution on every event.
+
+			fromPath := ev.Name
+
+			relPath, found := sourceFs.MakePathRelative(fromPath)
+
+			if !found {
+				// Not member of this virtual host.
+				continue
+			}
+
+			// Remove || rename is harder and will require an assumption.
+			// Hugo takes the following approach:
+			// If the static file exists in any of the static source directories after this event
+			// Hugo will re-sync it.
+			// If it does not exist in all of the static directories Hugo will remove it.
+			//
+			// This assumes that Hugo has not generated content on top of a static file and then removed
+			// the source of that static file. In this case Hugo will incorrectly remove that file
+			// from the published directory.
+			if ev.Op&fsnotify.Rename == fsnotify.Rename || ev.Op&fsnotify.Remove == fsnotify.Remove {
+				if _, err := sourceFs.Fs.Stat(relPath); herrors.IsNotExist(err) {
+					// If file doesn't exist in any static dir, remove it
+					logger.Println("File no longer exists in static dir, removing", relPath)
+					_ = c.conf().fs.PublishDirStatic.RemoveAll(relPath)
+
+				} else if err == nil {
+					// If file still exists, sync it
+					logger.Println("Syncing", relPath, "to", publishDir)
+
+					if err := syncer.Sync(relPath, relPath); err != nil {
+						c.r.logger.Errorln(err)
+					}
+				} else {
+					c.r.logger.Errorln(err)
+				}
+
+				continue
+			}
+
+			// For all other event operations Hugo will sync static.
+			logger.Println("Syncing", relPath, "to", publishDir)
+			if err := syncer.Sync(filepath.Join(publishDir, relPath), relPath); err != nil {
+				c.r.logger.Errorln(err)
 			}
 		}
-		u.Host += fmt.Sprintf(":%d", port)
+
+		return 0, nil
 	}
 
-	return u.String(), nil
+	_, err := c.doWithPublishDirs(syncFn)
+	return err
 }
 
-func memStats() error {
-	b := newCommandsBuilder()
-	sc := b.newServerCmd().getCommand()
-	memstats := sc.Flags().Lookup("memstats").Value.String()
-	if memstats != "" {
-		interval, err := time.ParseDuration(sc.Flags().Lookup("meminterval").Value.String())
-		if err != nil {
-			interval, _ = time.ParseDuration("100ms")
-		}
+func chmodFilter(dst, src os.FileInfo) bool {
+	// Hugo publishes data from multiple sources, potentially
+	// with overlapping directory structures. We cannot sync permissions
+	// for directories as that would mean that we might end up with write-protected
+	// directories inside /public.
+	// One example of this would be syncing from the Go Module cache,
+	// which have 0555 directories.
+	return src.IsDir()
+}
 
-		fileMemStats, err := os.Create(memstats)
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
+func cleanErrorLog(content string) string {
+	content = strings.ReplaceAll(content, "\n", " ")
+	content = logReplacer.Replace(content)
+	content = logDuplicateTemplateExecuteRe.ReplaceAllString(content, "")
+	content = logDuplicateTemplateParseRe.ReplaceAllString(content, "")
+	seen := make(map[string]bool)
+	parts := strings.Split(content, ": ")
+	keep := make([]string, 0, len(parts))
+	for _, part := range parts {
+		if seen[part] {
+			continue
 		}
+		seen[part] = true
+		keep = append(keep, part)
+	}
+	return strings.Join(keep, ": ")
+}
 
-		fileMemStats.WriteString("# Time\tHeapSys\tHeapAlloc\tHeapIdle\tHeapReleased\n")
+func injectLiveReloadScript(src io.Reader, baseURL url.URL) string {
+	var b bytes.Buffer
+	chain := transform.Chain{livereloadinject.New(baseURL)}
+	chain.Apply(&b, src)
 
-		go func() {
-			var stats runtime.MemStats
+	return b.String()
+}
 
-			start := htime.Now().UnixNano()
+func partitionDynamicEvents(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystems, events []fsnotify.Event) (de dynamicEvents) {
+	for _, e := range events {
+		if sourceFs.IsAsset(e.Name) {
+			de.AssetEvents = append(de.AssetEvents, e)
+		} else {
+			de.ContentEvents = append(de.ContentEvents, e)
+		}
+	}
+	return
+}
 
-			for {
-				runtime.ReadMemStats(&stats)
-				if fileMemStats != nil {
-					fileMemStats.WriteString(fmt.Sprintf("%d\t%d\t%d\t%d\t%d\n",
-						(htime.Now().UnixNano()-start)/1000000, stats.HeapSys, stats.HeapAlloc, stats.HeapIdle, stats.HeapReleased))
-					time.Sleep(interval)
-				} else {
-					break
-				}
+func pickOneWriteOrCreatePath(events []fsnotify.Event) string {
+	name := ""
+
+	for _, ev := range events {
+		if ev.Op&fsnotify.Write == fsnotify.Write || ev.Op&fsnotify.Create == fsnotify.Create {
+			if files.IsIndexContentFile(ev.Name) {
+				return ev.Name
 			}
-		}()
+
+			if files.IsContentFile(ev.Name) {
+				name = ev.Name
+			}
+
+		}
 	}
-	return nil
+
+	return name
+}
+
+func removeErrorPrefixFromLog(content string) string {
+	return logErrorRe.ReplaceAllLiteralString(content, "")
+}
+
+func formatByteCount(b uint64) string {
+	const unit = 1000
+	if b < unit {
+		return fmt.Sprintf("%d B", b)
+	}
+	div, exp := int64(unit), 0
+	for n := b / unit; n >= unit; n /= unit {
+		div *= unit
+		exp++
+	}
+	return fmt.Sprintf("%.1f %cB",
+		float64(b)/float64(div), "kMGTPE"[exp])
 }
diff --git a/commands/server_errors.go b/commands/server_errors.go
deleted file mode 100644
index edf658156..000000000
--- a/commands/server_errors.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,31 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"bytes"
-	"io"
-	"net/url"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/transform"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/transform/livereloadinject"
-)
-
-func injectLiveReloadScript(src io.Reader, baseURL url.URL) string {
-	var b bytes.Buffer
-	chain := transform.Chain{livereloadinject.New(baseURL)}
-	chain.Apply(&b, src)
-
-	return b.String()
-}
diff --git a/commands/server_test.go b/commands/server_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 010208067..000000000
--- a/commands/server_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,429 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"context"
-	"fmt"
-	"net/http"
-	"os"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"runtime"
-	"strings"
-	"testing"
-	"time"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
-	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-)
-
-// Issue 9518
-func TestServerPanicOnConfigError(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	config := `
-[markup]
-[markup.highlight]
-linenos='table'
-`
-
-	r := runServerTest(c,
-		serverTestOptions{
-			config: config,
-		},
-	)
-
-	c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNotNil)
-	c.Assert(r.err.Error(), qt.Contains, "cannot parse 'Highlight.LineNos' as bool:")
-}
-
-func TestServer404(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	r := runServerTest(c,
-		serverTestOptions{
-			pathsToGet:  []string{"this/does/not/exist"},
-			getNumHomes: 1,
-		},
-	)
-
-	c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-	pr := r.pathsResults["this/does/not/exist"]
-	c.Assert(pr.statusCode, qt.Equals, http.StatusNotFound)
-	c.Assert(pr.body, qt.Contains, "404: 404 Page not found|Not Found.")
-}
-
-func TestServerPathEncodingIssues(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	// Issue 10287
-	c.Run("Unicode paths", func(c *qt.C) {
-		r := runServerTest(c,
-			serverTestOptions{
-				pathsToGet:  []string{"hügö/"},
-				getNumHomes: 1,
-			},
-		)
-
-		c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(r.pathsResults["hügö/"].body, qt.Contains, "This is hügö")
-	})
-
-	// Issue 10314
-	c.Run("Windows multilingual 404", func(c *qt.C) {
-		config := `
-baseURL = 'https://example.org/'
-title = 'Hugo Forum Topic #40568'
-
-defaultContentLanguageInSubdir = true
-
-[languages.en]
-contentDir = 'content/en'
-languageCode = 'en-US'
-languageName = 'English'
-weight = 1
-
-[languages.es]
-contentDir = 'content/es'
-languageCode = 'es-ES'
-languageName = 'Espanol'
-weight = 2
-
-[server]
-[[server.redirects]]
-from = '/en/**'
-to = '/en/404.html'
-status = 404
-
-[[server.redirects]]
-from = '/es/**'
-to = '/es/404.html'
-status = 404
-`
-		r := runServerTest(c,
-			serverTestOptions{
-				config:      config,
-				pathsToGet:  []string{"en/this/does/not/exist", "es/this/does/not/exist"},
-				getNumHomes: 1,
-			},
-		)
-
-		c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-		pr1 := r.pathsResults["en/this/does/not/exist"]
-		pr2 := r.pathsResults["es/this/does/not/exist"]
-		c.Assert(pr1.statusCode, qt.Equals, http.StatusNotFound)
-		c.Assert(pr2.statusCode, qt.Equals, http.StatusNotFound)
-		c.Assert(pr1.body, qt.Contains, "404: 404 Page not found|Not Found.")
-		c.Assert(pr2.body, qt.Contains, "404: 404 Page not found|Not Found.")
-
-	})
-
-}
-func TestServerFlags(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	assertPublic := func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult, renderStaticToDisk bool) {
-		c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(r.homesContent[0], qt.Contains, "Environment: development")
-		c.Assert(r.publicDirnames["myfile.txt"], qt.Equals, renderStaticToDisk)
-
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range []struct {
-		flag   string
-		assert func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult)
-	}{
-		{"", func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
-			assertPublic(c, r, false)
-		}},
-		{"--renderToDisk", func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
-			assertPublic(c, r, true)
-		}},
-		{"--renderStaticToDisk", func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
-			assertPublic(c, r, true)
-		}},
-	} {
-		c.Run(test.flag, func(c *qt.C) {
-			config := `
-baseURL="https://example.org"
-`
-
-			var args []string
-			if test.flag != "" {
-				args = strings.Split(test.flag, "=")
-			}
-
-			opts := serverTestOptions{
-				config:      config,
-				args:        args,
-				getNumHomes: 1,
-			}
-
-			r := runServerTest(c, opts)
-
-			test.assert(c, r)
-
-		})
-
-	}
-
-}
-
-func TestServerBugs(t *testing.T) {
-	// TODO(bep) this is flaky on Windows on GH Actions.
-	if htesting.IsGitHubAction() && runtime.GOOS == "windows" {
-		t.Skip("skipping on windows")
-	}
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	for _, test := range []struct {
-		name       string
-		config     string
-		flag       string
-		numservers int
-		assert     func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult)
-	}{
-		{"PostProcess, memory", "", "", 1, func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
-			c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(r.homesContent[0], qt.Contains, "PostProcess: /foo.min.css")
-		}},
-		// Issue 9788
-		{"PostProcess, memory", "", "", 1, func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
-			c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(r.homesContent[0], qt.Contains, "PostProcess: /foo.min.css")
-		}},
-		{"PostProcess, disk", "", "--renderToDisk", 1, func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
-			c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(r.homesContent[0], qt.Contains, "PostProcess: /foo.min.css")
-		}},
-		// Issue 9901
-		{"Multihost", `
-defaultContentLanguage = 'en'
-[languages]
-[languages.en]
-baseURL = 'https://example.com'
-title = 'My blog'
-weight = 1
-[languages.fr]
-baseURL = 'https://example.fr'
-title = 'Mon blogue'
-weight = 2
-`, "", 2, func(c *qt.C, r serverTestResult) {
-			c.Assert(r.err, qt.IsNil)
-			for i, s := range []string{"My blog", "Mon blogue"} {
-				c.Assert(r.homesContent[i], qt.Contains, s)
-			}
-		}},
-	} {
-		c.Run(test.name, func(c *qt.C) {
-			if test.config == "" {
-				test.config = `
-baseURL="https://example.org"
-`
-			}
-
-			var args []string
-			if test.flag != "" {
-				args = strings.Split(test.flag, "=")
-			}
-
-			opts := serverTestOptions{
-				config:      test.config,
-				getNumHomes: test.numservers,
-				pathsToGet:  []string{"this/does/not/exist"},
-				args:        args,
-			}
-
-			r := runServerTest(c, opts)
-			pr := r.pathsResults["this/does/not/exist"]
-			c.Assert(pr.statusCode, qt.Equals, http.StatusNotFound)
-			c.Assert(pr.body, qt.Contains, "404: 404 Page not found|Not Found.")
-			test.assert(c, r)
-
-		})
-
-	}
-
-}
-
-type serverTestResult struct {
-	err            error
-	homesContent   []string
-	content404     string
-	publicDirnames map[string]bool
-	pathsResults   map[string]pathResult
-}
-
-type pathResult struct {
-	statusCode int
-	body       string
-}
-
-type serverTestOptions struct {
-	getNumHomes int
-	config      string
-	pathsToGet  []string
-	args        []string
-}
-
-func runServerTest(c *qt.C, opts serverTestOptions) serverTestResult {
-	dir := createSimpleTestSite(c, testSiteConfig{configTOML: opts.config})
-	result := serverTestResult{
-		publicDirnames: make(map[string]bool),
-		pathsResults:   make(map[string]pathResult),
-	}
-
-	sp, err := helpers.FindAvailablePort()
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	port := sp.Port
-
-	defer func() {
-		os.RemoveAll(dir)
-	}()
-
-	stop := make(chan bool)
-
-	b := newCommandsBuilder()
-	scmd := b.newServerCmdSignaled(stop)
-
-	cmd := scmd.getCommand()
-	args := append([]string{"-s=" + dir, fmt.Sprintf("-p=%d", port)}, opts.args...)
-	cmd.SetArgs(args)
-
-	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), 10*time.Second)
-	defer cancel()
-	wg, ctx := errgroup.WithContext(ctx)
-
-	wg.Go(func() error {
-		_, err := cmd.ExecuteC()
-		return err
-	})
-
-	if opts.getNumHomes > 0 {
-		// Esp. on slow CI machines, we need to wait a little before the web
-		// server is ready.
-		wait := 567 * time.Millisecond
-		if os.Getenv("CI") != "" {
-			wait = 2 * time.Second
-		}
-		time.Sleep(wait)
-		result.homesContent = make([]string, opts.getNumHomes)
-		for i := 0; i < opts.getNumHomes; i++ {
-			func() {
-				resp, err := http.Get(fmt.Sprintf("http://localhost:%d/", port+i))
-				c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-				c.Assert(resp.StatusCode, qt.Equals, http.StatusOK)
-				if err == nil {
-					defer resp.Body.Close()
-					result.homesContent[i] = helpers.ReaderToString(resp.Body)
-				}
-			}()
-		}
-	}
-
-	for _, path := range opts.pathsToGet {
-		func() {
-			resp, err := http.Get(fmt.Sprintf("http://localhost:%d/%s", port, path))
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			pr := pathResult{
-				statusCode: resp.StatusCode,
-			}
-
-			if err == nil {
-				defer resp.Body.Close()
-				pr.body = helpers.ReaderToString(resp.Body)
-			}
-			result.pathsResults[path] = pr
-		}()
-	}
-
-	time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)
-
-	select {
-	case <-stop:
-	case stop <- true:
-	}
-
-	pubFiles, err := os.ReadDir(filepath.Join(dir, "public"))
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	for _, f := range pubFiles {
-		result.publicDirnames[f.Name()] = true
-	}
-
-	result.err = wg.Wait()
-
-	return result
-
-}
-
-func TestFixURL(t *testing.T) {
-	type data struct {
-		TestName   string
-		CLIBaseURL string
-		CfgBaseURL string
-		AppendPort bool
-		Port       int
-		Result     string
-	}
-	tests := []data{
-		{"Basic http localhost", "", "http://foo.com", true, 1313, "http://localhost:1313/"},
-		{"Basic https production, http localhost", "", "https://foo.com", true, 1313, "http://localhost:1313/"},
-		{"Basic subdir", "", "http://foo.com/bar", true, 1313, "http://localhost:1313/bar/"},
-		{"Basic production", "http://foo.com", "http://foo.com", false, 80, "http://foo.com/"},
-		{"Production subdir", "http://foo.com/bar", "http://foo.com/bar", false, 80, "http://foo.com/bar/"},
-		{"No http", "", "foo.com", true, 1313, "//localhost:1313/"},
-		{"Override configured port", "", "foo.com:2020", true, 1313, "//localhost:1313/"},
-		{"No http production", "foo.com", "foo.com", false, 80, "//foo.com/"},
-		{"No http production with port", "foo.com", "foo.com", true, 2020, "//foo.com:2020/"},
-		{"No config", "", "", true, 1313, "//localhost:1313/"},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		t.Run(test.TestName, func(t *testing.T) {
-			b := newCommandsBuilder()
-			s := b.newServerCmd()
-			v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-			baseURL := test.CLIBaseURL
-			v.Set("baseURL", test.CfgBaseURL)
-			s.serverAppend = test.AppendPort
-			s.serverPort = test.Port
-			result, err := s.fixURL(v, baseURL, s.serverPort)
-			if err != nil {
-				t.Errorf("Unexpected error %s", err)
-			}
-			if result != test.Result {
-				t.Errorf("Expected %q, got %q", test.Result, result)
-			}
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-func TestRemoveErrorPrefixFromLog(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	content := `ERROR 2018/10/07 13:11:12 Error while rendering "home": template: _default/baseof.html:4:3: executing "main" at <partial "logo" .>: error calling partial: template: partials/logo.html:5:84: executing "partials/logo.html" at <$resized.AHeight>: can't evaluate field AHeight in type *resource.Image
-ERROR 2018/10/07 13:11:12 Rebuild failed: logged 1 error(s)
-`
-
-	withoutError := removeErrorPrefixFromLog(content)
-
-	c.Assert(strings.Contains(withoutError, "ERROR"), qt.Equals, false)
-}
-
-func isWindowsCI() bool {
-	return runtime.GOOS == "windows" && os.Getenv("CI") != ""
-}
diff --git a/commands/static_syncer.go b/commands/static_syncer.go
deleted file mode 100644
index c248ca152..000000000
--- a/commands/static_syncer.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,129 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2017 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"path/filepath"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/filesystems"
-
-	"github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/spf13/fsync"
-)
-
-type staticSyncer struct {
-	c *commandeer
-}
-
-func newStaticSyncer(c *commandeer) (*staticSyncer, error) {
-	return &staticSyncer{c: c}, nil
-}
-
-func (s *staticSyncer) isStatic(filename string) bool {
-	return s.c.hugo().BaseFs.SourceFilesystems.IsStatic(filename)
-}
-
-func (s *staticSyncer) syncsStaticEvents(staticEvents []fsnotify.Event) error {
-	c := s.c
-
-	syncFn := func(sourceFs *filesystems.SourceFilesystem) (uint64, error) {
-		publishDir := helpers.FilePathSeparator
-
-		if sourceFs.PublishFolder != "" {
-			publishDir = filepath.Join(publishDir, sourceFs.PublishFolder)
-		}
-
-		syncer := fsync.NewSyncer()
-		syncer.NoTimes = c.Cfg.GetBool("noTimes")
-		syncer.NoChmod = c.Cfg.GetBool("noChmod")
-		syncer.ChmodFilter = chmodFilter
-		syncer.SrcFs = sourceFs.Fs
-		syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.PublishDir
-		if c.renderStaticToDisk {
-			syncer.DestFs = c.Fs.PublishDirStatic
-		}
-
-		// prevent spamming the log on changes
-		logger := helpers.NewDistinctErrorLogger()
-
-		for _, ev := range staticEvents {
-			// Due to our approach of layering both directories and the content's rendered output
-			// into one we can't accurately remove a file not in one of the source directories.
-			// If a file is in the local static dir and also in the theme static dir and we remove
-			// it from one of those locations we expect it to still exist in the destination
-			//
-			// If Hugo generates a file (from the content dir) over a static file
-			// the content generated file should take precedence.
-			//
-			// Because we are now watching and handling individual events it is possible that a static
-			// event that occupies the same path as a content generated file will take precedence
-			// until a regeneration of the content takes places.
-			//
-			// Hugo assumes that these cases are very rare and will permit this bad behavior
-			// The alternative is to track every single file and which pipeline rendered it
-			// and then to handle conflict resolution on every event.
-
-			fromPath := ev.Name
-
-			relPath, found := sourceFs.MakePathRelative(fromPath)
-
-			if !found {
-				// Not member of this virtual host.
-				continue
-			}
-
-			// Remove || rename is harder and will require an assumption.
-			// Hugo takes the following approach:
-			// If the static file exists in any of the static source directories after this event
-			// Hugo will re-sync it.
-			// If it does not exist in all of the static directories Hugo will remove it.
-			//
-			// This assumes that Hugo has not generated content on top of a static file and then removed
-			// the source of that static file. In this case Hugo will incorrectly remove that file
-			// from the published directory.
-			if ev.Op&fsnotify.Rename == fsnotify.Rename || ev.Op&fsnotify.Remove == fsnotify.Remove {
-				if _, err := sourceFs.Fs.Stat(relPath); herrors.IsNotExist(err) {
-					// If file doesn't exist in any static dir, remove it
-					logger.Println("File no longer exists in static dir, removing", relPath)
-					_ = c.Fs.PublishDirStatic.RemoveAll(relPath)
-
-				} else if err == nil {
-					// If file still exists, sync it
-					logger.Println("Syncing", relPath, "to", publishDir)
-
-					if err := syncer.Sync(relPath, relPath); err != nil {
-						c.logger.Errorln(err)
-					}
-				} else {
-					c.logger.Errorln(err)
-				}
-
-				continue
-			}
-
-			// For all other event operations Hugo will sync static.
-			logger.Println("Syncing", relPath, "to", publishDir)
-			if err := syncer.Sync(filepath.Join(publishDir, relPath), relPath); err != nil {
-				c.logger.Errorln(err)
-			}
-		}
-
-		return 0, nil
-	}
-
-	_, err := c.doWithPublishDirs(syncFn)
-	return err
-}
diff --git a/commands/version.go b/commands/version.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 287950a2d..000000000
--- a/commands/version.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,44 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package commands
-
-import (
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
-)
-
-var _ cmder = (*versionCmd)(nil)
-
-type versionCmd struct {
-	*baseCmd
-}
-
-func newVersionCmd() *versionCmd {
-	return &versionCmd{
-		newBaseCmd(&cobra.Command{
-			Use:   "version",
-			Short: "Print the version number of Hugo",
-			Long:  `All software has versions. This is Hugo's.`,
-			RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-				printHugoVersion()
-				return nil
-			},
-		}),
-	}
-}
-
-func printHugoVersion() {
-	jww.FEEDBACK.Println(hugo.BuildVersionString())
-}
diff --git a/commands/xcommand_template.go b/commands/xcommand_template.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..6bb507a5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/commands/xcommand_template.go
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package commands
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"fmt"
+
+	"github.com/bep/simplecobra"
+	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
+)
+
+func newSimpleTemplateCommand() simplecobra.Commander {
+	return &simpleCommand{
+		name: "template",
+		run: func(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, r *rootCommand, args []string) error {
+
+			return nil
+		},
+		withc: func(cmd *cobra.Command) {
+
+		},
+	}
+
+}
+
+func newTemplateCommand() *templateCommand {
+	return &templateCommand{
+		commands: []simplecobra.Commander{},
+	}
+
+}
+
+type templateCommand struct {
+	r *rootCommand
+
+	commands []simplecobra.Commander
+}
+
+func (c *templateCommand) Commands() []simplecobra.Commander {
+	return c.commands
+}
+
+func (c *templateCommand) Name() string {
+	return "template"
+}
+
+func (c *templateCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, cd *simplecobra.Commandeer, args []string) error {
+	conf, err := c.r.ConfigFromProvider(c.r.configVersionID.Load(), flagsToCfg(cd, nil))
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	fmt.Println("templateCommand.Run", conf)
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *templateCommand) WithCobraCommand(cmd *cobra.Command) error {
+	cmd.Short = "Print the site configuration"
+	cmd.Long = `Print the site configuration, both default and custom settings.`
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *templateCommand) Init(cd, runner *simplecobra.Commandeer) error {
+	c.r = cd.Root.Command.(*rootCommand)
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/common/hstrings/strings.go b/common/hstrings/strings.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..6c0f820fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/common/hstrings/strings.go
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package hstrings
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/compare"
+)
+
+var _ compare.Eqer = StringEqualFold("")
+
+// StringEqualFold is a string that implements the compare.Eqer interface and considers
+// two strings equal if they are equal when folded to lower case.
+// The compare.Eqer interface is used in Hugo to compare values in templates (e.g. using the eq template function).
+type StringEqualFold string
+
+func (s StringEqualFold) EqualFold(s2 string) bool {
+	return strings.EqualFold(string(s), s2)
+}
+
+func (s StringEqualFold) String() string {
+	return string(s)
+}
+
+func (s StringEqualFold) Eq(s2 any) bool {
+	switch ss := s2.(type) {
+	case string:
+		return s.EqualFold(ss)
+	case fmt.Stringer:
+		return s.EqualFold(ss.String())
+	}
+
+	return false
+}
+
+// EqualAny returns whether a string is equal to any of the given strings.
+func EqualAny(a string, b ...string) bool {
+	for _, s := range b {
+		if a == s {
+			return true
+		}
+	}
+	return false
+}
diff --git a/config/compositeConfig_test.go b/common/hstrings/strings_test.go
index 60644102f..dc2eae6f2 100644
--- a/config/compositeConfig_test.go
+++ b/common/hstrings/strings_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2021 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package config
+package hstrings
 
 import (
 	"testing"
@@ -19,22 +19,18 @@ import (
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
-func TestCompositeConfig(t *testing.T) {
+func TestStringEqualFold(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	c.Run("Set and get", func(c *qt.C) {
-		base, layer := New(), New()
-		cfg := NewCompositeConfig(base, layer)
+	s1 := "A"
+	s2 := "a"
 
-		layer.Set("a1", "av")
-		base.Set("b1", "bv")
-		cfg.Set("c1", "cv")
+	c.Assert(StringEqualFold(s1).EqualFold(s2), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(StringEqualFold(s1).EqualFold(s1), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(StringEqualFold(s2).EqualFold(s1), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(StringEqualFold(s2).EqualFold(s2), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(StringEqualFold(s1).EqualFold("b"), qt.Equals, false)
+	c.Assert(StringEqualFold(s1).Eq(s2), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(StringEqualFold(s1).Eq("b"), qt.Equals, false)
 
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("a1"), qt.Equals, "av")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("b1"), qt.Equals, "bv")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("c1"), qt.Equals, "cv")
-		c.Assert(cfg.IsSet("c1"), qt.IsTrue)
-		c.Assert(layer.IsSet("c1"), qt.IsTrue)
-		c.Assert(base.IsSet("c1"), qt.IsFalse)
-	})
 }
diff --git a/common/htime/time.go b/common/htime/time.go
index d30ecf7e1..961962b60 100644
--- a/common/htime/time.go
+++ b/common/htime/time.go
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 package htime
 
 import (
+	"log"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -163,3 +164,11 @@ func Since(t time.Time) time.Duration {
 type AsTimeProvider interface {
 	AsTime(zone *time.Location) time.Time
 }
+
+// StopWatch is a simple helper to measure time during development.
+func StopWatch(name string) func() {
+	start := time.Now()
+	return func() {
+		log.Printf("StopWatch %q took %s", name, time.Since(start))
+	}
+}
diff --git a/common/hugo/hugo.go b/common/hugo/hugo.go
index efcb470a3..6402d7b88 100644
--- a/common/hugo/hugo.go
+++ b/common/hugo/hugo.go
@@ -46,8 +46,8 @@ var (
 	vendorInfo string
 )
 
-// Info contains information about the current Hugo environment
-type Info struct {
+// HugoInfo contains information about the current Hugo environment
+type HugoInfo struct {
 	CommitHash string
 	BuildDate  string
 
@@ -64,30 +64,30 @@ type Info struct {
 }
 
 // Version returns the current version as a comparable version string.
-func (i Info) Version() VersionString {
+func (i HugoInfo) Version() VersionString {
 	return CurrentVersion.Version()
 }
 
 // Generator a Hugo meta generator HTML tag.
-func (i Info) Generator() template.HTML {
+func (i HugoInfo) Generator() template.HTML {
 	return template.HTML(fmt.Sprintf(`<meta name="generator" content="Hugo %s">`, CurrentVersion.String()))
 }
 
-func (i Info) IsProduction() bool {
+func (i HugoInfo) IsProduction() bool {
 	return i.Environment == EnvironmentProduction
 }
 
-func (i Info) IsExtended() bool {
+func (i HugoInfo) IsExtended() bool {
 	return IsExtended
 }
 
 // Deps gets a list of dependencies for this Hugo build.
-func (i Info) Deps() []*Dependency {
+func (i HugoInfo) Deps() []*Dependency {
 	return i.deps
 }
 
 // NewInfo creates a new Hugo Info object.
-func NewInfo(environment string, deps []*Dependency) Info {
+func NewInfo(environment string, deps []*Dependency) HugoInfo {
 	if environment == "" {
 		environment = EnvironmentProduction
 	}
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ func NewInfo(environment string, deps []*Dependency) Info {
 		goVersion = bi.GoVersion
 	}
 
-	return Info{
+	return HugoInfo{
 		CommitHash:  commitHash,
 		BuildDate:   buildDate,
 		Environment: environment,
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ func NewInfo(environment string, deps []*Dependency) Info {
 
 // GetExecEnviron creates and gets the common os/exec environment used in the
 // external programs we interact with via os/exec, e.g. postcss.
-func GetExecEnviron(workDir string, cfg config.Provider, fs afero.Fs) []string {
+func GetExecEnviron(workDir string, cfg config.AllProvider, fs afero.Fs) []string {
 	var env []string
 	nodepath := filepath.Join(workDir, "node_modules")
 	if np := os.Getenv("NODE_PATH"); np != "" {
@@ -123,10 +123,9 @@ func GetExecEnviron(workDir string, cfg config.Provider, fs afero.Fs) []string {
 	}
 	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "NODE_PATH", nodepath)
 	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "PWD", workDir)
-	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "HUGO_ENVIRONMENT", cfg.GetString("environment"))
-	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "HUGO_ENV", cfg.GetString("environment"))
-
-	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "HUGO_PUBLISHDIR", filepath.Join(workDir, cfg.GetString("publishDirOrig")))
+	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "HUGO_ENVIRONMENT", cfg.Environment())
+	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "HUGO_ENV", cfg.Environment())
+	config.SetEnvVars(&env, "HUGO_PUBLISHDIR", filepath.Join(workDir, cfg.BaseConfig().PublishDir))
 
 	if fs != nil {
 		fis, err := afero.ReadDir(fs, files.FolderJSConfig)
diff --git a/common/loggers/ignorableLogger.go b/common/loggers/ignorableLogger.go
index 5040d1036..c8aba560e 100644
--- a/common/loggers/ignorableLogger.go
+++ b/common/loggers/ignorableLogger.go
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@ package loggers
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
-	"strings"
 )
 
 // IgnorableLogger is a logger that ignores certain log statements.
@@ -31,14 +30,13 @@ type ignorableLogger struct {
 }
 
 // NewIgnorableLogger wraps the given logger and ignores the log statement IDs given.
-func NewIgnorableLogger(logger Logger, statements ...string) IgnorableLogger {
-	statementsSet := make(map[string]bool)
-	for _, s := range statements {
-		statementsSet[strings.ToLower(s)] = true
+func NewIgnorableLogger(logger Logger, statements map[string]bool) IgnorableLogger {
+	if statements == nil {
+		statements = make(map[string]bool)
 	}
 	return ignorableLogger{
 		Logger:     logger,
-		statements: statementsSet,
+		statements: statements,
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/common/maps/maps.go b/common/maps/maps.go
index 2d8a122ca..6aefde927 100644
--- a/common/maps/maps.go
+++ b/common/maps/maps.go
@@ -43,25 +43,25 @@ func ToStringMapE(in any) (map[string]any, error) {
 // ToParamsAndPrepare converts in to Params and prepares it for use.
 // If in is nil, an empty map is returned.
 // See PrepareParams.
-func ToParamsAndPrepare(in any) (Params, bool) {
+func ToParamsAndPrepare(in any) (Params, error) {
 	if types.IsNil(in) {
-		return Params{}, true
+		return Params{}, nil
 	}
 	m, err := ToStringMapE(in)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, false
+		return nil, err
 	}
 	PrepareParams(m)
-	return m, true
+	return m, nil
 }
 
 // MustToParamsAndPrepare calls ToParamsAndPrepare and panics if it fails.
 func MustToParamsAndPrepare(in any) Params {
-	if p, ok := ToParamsAndPrepare(in); ok {
-		return p
-	} else {
-		panic(fmt.Sprintf("cannot convert %T to maps.Params", in))
+	p, err := ToParamsAndPrepare(in)
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(fmt.Sprintf("cannot convert %T to maps.Params: %s", in, err))
 	}
+	return p
 }
 
 // ToStringMap converts in to map[string]interface{}.
@@ -96,6 +96,8 @@ func ToSliceStringMap(in any) ([]map[string]any, error) {
 	switch v := in.(type) {
 	case []map[string]any:
 		return v, nil
+	case Params:
+		return []map[string]any{v}, nil
 	case []any:
 		var s []map[string]any
 		for _, entry := range v {
@@ -123,6 +125,23 @@ func LookupEqualFold[T any | string](m map[string]T, key string) (T, bool) {
 	return s, false
 }
 
+// MergeShallow merges src into dst, but only if the key does not already exist in dst.
+// The keys are compared case insensitively.
+func MergeShallow(dst, src map[string]any) {
+	for k, v := range src {
+		found := false
+		for dk := range dst {
+			if strings.EqualFold(dk, k) {
+				found = true
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		if !found {
+			dst[k] = v
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 type keyRename struct {
 	pattern glob.Glob
 	newKey  string
diff --git a/common/maps/maps_test.go b/common/maps/maps_test.go
index 0b84d2dd7..0e8589d34 100644
--- a/common/maps/maps_test.go
+++ b/common/maps/maps_test.go
@@ -116,11 +116,11 @@ func TestToSliceStringMap(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestToParamsAndPrepare(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	_, ok := ToParamsAndPrepare(map[string]any{"A": "av"})
-	c.Assert(ok, qt.IsTrue)
+	_, err := ToParamsAndPrepare(map[string]any{"A": "av"})
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	params, ok := ToParamsAndPrepare(nil)
-	c.Assert(ok, qt.IsTrue)
+	params, err := ToParamsAndPrepare(nil)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(params, qt.DeepEquals, Params{})
 }
 
diff --git a/common/maps/params.go b/common/maps/params.go
index 4bf95f43b..eb60fbbfc 100644
--- a/common/maps/params.go
+++ b/common/maps/params.go
@@ -23,30 +23,37 @@ import (
 // Params is a map where all keys are lower case.
 type Params map[string]any
 
-// Get does a lower case and nested search in this map.
+// KeyParams is an utility struct for the WalkParams method.
+type KeyParams struct {
+	Key    string
+	Params Params
+}
+
+// GetNested does a lower case and nested search in this map.
 // It will return nil if none found.
-func (p Params) Get(indices ...string) any {
+// Make all of these methods internal somehow.
+func (p Params) GetNested(indices ...string) any {
 	v, _, _ := getNested(p, indices)
 	return v
 }
 
-// Set overwrites values in p with values in pp for common or new keys.
+// Set overwrites values in dst with values in src for common or new keys.
 // This is done recursively.
-func (p Params) Set(pp Params) {
-	for k, v := range pp {
-		vv, found := p[k]
+func SetParams(dst, src Params) {
+	for k, v := range src {
+		vv, found := dst[k]
 		if !found {
-			p[k] = v
+			dst[k] = v
 		} else {
 			switch vvv := vv.(type) {
 			case Params:
 				if pv, ok := v.(Params); ok {
-					vvv.Set(pv)
+					SetParams(vvv, pv)
 				} else {
-					p[k] = v
+					dst[k] = v
 				}
 			default:
-				p[k] = v
+				dst[k] = v
 			}
 		}
 	}
@@ -70,18 +77,17 @@ func (p Params) IsZero() bool {
 
 }
 
-// Merge transfers values from pp to p for new keys.
+// MergeParamsWithStrategy transfers values from src to dst for new keys using the merge strategy given.
 // This is done recursively.
-func (p Params) Merge(pp Params) {
-	p.merge("", pp)
+func MergeParamsWithStrategy(strategy string, dst, src Params) {
+	dst.merge(ParamsMergeStrategy(strategy), src)
 }
 
-// MergeRoot transfers values from pp to p for new keys where p is the
-// root of the tree.
+// MergeParamsWithStrategy transfers values from src to dst for new keys using the merge encoded in dst.
 // This is done recursively.
-func (p Params) MergeRoot(pp Params) {
-	ms, _ := p.GetMergeStrategy()
-	p.merge(ms, pp)
+func MergeParams(dst, src Params) {
+	ms, _ := dst.GetMergeStrategy()
+	dst.merge(ms, src)
 }
 
 func (p Params) merge(ps ParamsMergeStrategy, pp Params) {
@@ -116,6 +122,7 @@ func (p Params) merge(ps ParamsMergeStrategy, pp Params) {
 	}
 }
 
+// For internal use.
 func (p Params) GetMergeStrategy() (ParamsMergeStrategy, bool) {
 	if v, found := p[mergeStrategyKey]; found {
 		if s, ok := v.(ParamsMergeStrategy); ok {
@@ -125,6 +132,7 @@ func (p Params) GetMergeStrategy() (ParamsMergeStrategy, bool) {
 	return ParamsMergeStrategyShallow, false
 }
 
+// For internal use.
 func (p Params) DeleteMergeStrategy() bool {
 	if _, found := p[mergeStrategyKey]; found {
 		delete(p, mergeStrategyKey)
@@ -133,7 +141,8 @@ func (p Params) DeleteMergeStrategy() bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-func (p Params) SetDefaultMergeStrategy(s ParamsMergeStrategy) {
+// For internal use.
+func (p Params) SetMergeStrategy(s ParamsMergeStrategy) {
 	switch s {
 	case ParamsMergeStrategyDeep, ParamsMergeStrategyNone, ParamsMergeStrategyShallow:
 	default:
@@ -187,7 +196,7 @@ func GetNestedParam(keyStr, separator string, candidates ...Params) (any, error)
 
 	keySegments := strings.Split(keyStr, separator)
 	for _, m := range candidates {
-		if v := m.Get(keySegments...); v != nil {
+		if v := m.GetNested(keySegments...); v != nil {
 			return v, nil
 		}
 	}
@@ -236,6 +245,55 @@ const (
 	mergeStrategyKey = "_merge"
 )
 
+// CleanConfigStringMapString removes any processing instructions from m,
+// m will never be modified.
+func CleanConfigStringMapString(m map[string]string) map[string]string {
+	if m == nil || len(m) == 0 {
+		return m
+	}
+	if _, found := m[mergeStrategyKey]; !found {
+		return m
+	}
+	// Create a new map and copy all the keys except the merge strategy key.
+	m2 := make(map[string]string, len(m)-1)
+	for k, v := range m {
+		if k != mergeStrategyKey {
+			m2[k] = v
+		}
+	}
+	return m2
+}
+
+// CleanConfigStringMap is the same as CleanConfigStringMapString but for
+// map[string]any.
+func CleanConfigStringMap(m map[string]any) map[string]any {
+	if m == nil || len(m) == 0 {
+		return m
+	}
+	if _, found := m[mergeStrategyKey]; !found {
+		return m
+	}
+	// Create a new map and copy all the keys except the merge strategy key.
+	m2 := make(map[string]any, len(m)-1)
+	for k, v := range m {
+		if k != mergeStrategyKey {
+			m2[k] = v
+		}
+		switch v2 := v.(type) {
+		case map[string]any:
+			m2[k] = CleanConfigStringMap(v2)
+		case Params:
+			var p Params = CleanConfigStringMap(v2)
+			m2[k] = p
+		case map[string]string:
+			m2[k] = CleanConfigStringMapString(v2)
+		}
+
+	}
+	return m2
+
+}
+
 func toMergeStrategy(v any) ParamsMergeStrategy {
 	s := ParamsMergeStrategy(cast.ToString(v))
 	switch s {
diff --git a/common/maps/params_test.go b/common/maps/params_test.go
index a070e6f60..7e1dbbae7 100644
--- a/common/maps/params_test.go
+++ b/common/maps/params_test.go
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ func TestParamsSetAndMerge(t *testing.T) {
 
 	p1, p2 := createParamsPair()
 
-	p1.Set(p2)
+	SetParams(p1, p2)
 
 	c.Assert(p1, qt.DeepEquals, Params{
 		"a": "abv",
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ func TestParamsSetAndMerge(t *testing.T) {
 
 	p1, p2 = createParamsPair()
 
-	p1.Merge(p2)
+	MergeParamsWithStrategy("", p1, p2)
 
 	// Default is to do a shallow merge.
 	c.Assert(p1, qt.DeepEquals, Params{
@@ -111,8 +111,8 @@ func TestParamsSetAndMerge(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	p1, p2 = createParamsPair()
-	p1.SetDefaultMergeStrategy(ParamsMergeStrategyNone)
-	p1.Merge(p2)
+	p1.SetMergeStrategy(ParamsMergeStrategyNone)
+	MergeParamsWithStrategy("", p1, p2)
 	p1.DeleteMergeStrategy()
 
 	c.Assert(p1, qt.DeepEquals, Params{
@@ -125,8 +125,8 @@ func TestParamsSetAndMerge(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	p1, p2 = createParamsPair()
-	p1.SetDefaultMergeStrategy(ParamsMergeStrategyShallow)
-	p1.Merge(p2)
+	p1.SetMergeStrategy(ParamsMergeStrategyShallow)
+	MergeParamsWithStrategy("", p1, p2)
 	p1.DeleteMergeStrategy()
 
 	c.Assert(p1, qt.DeepEquals, Params{
@@ -140,8 +140,8 @@ func TestParamsSetAndMerge(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	p1, p2 = createParamsPair()
-	p1.SetDefaultMergeStrategy(ParamsMergeStrategyDeep)
-	p1.Merge(p2)
+	p1.SetMergeStrategy(ParamsMergeStrategyDeep)
+	MergeParamsWithStrategy("", p1, p2)
 	p1.DeleteMergeStrategy()
 
 	c.Assert(p1, qt.DeepEquals, Params{
diff --git a/hugolib/paths/baseURL.go b/common/urls/baseURL.go
index a3c7e9d27..df26730ec 100644
--- a/hugolib/paths/baseURL.go
+++ b/common/urls/baseURL.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,32 +11,37 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package paths
+package urls
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"net/url"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 )
 
 // A BaseURL in Hugo is normally on the form scheme://path, but the
 // form scheme: is also valid (mailto:[email protected]).
 type BaseURL struct {
-	url    *url.URL
-	urlStr string
+	url         *url.URL
+	WithPath    string
+	WithoutPath string
+	BasePath    string
 }
 
 func (b BaseURL) String() string {
-	if b.urlStr != "" {
-		return b.urlStr
-	}
-	return b.url.String()
+	return b.WithPath
 }
 
 func (b BaseURL) Path() string {
 	return b.url.Path
 }
 
+func (b BaseURL) Port() int {
+	p, _ := strconv.Atoi(b.url.Port())
+	return p
+}
+
 // HostURL returns the URL to the host root without any path elements.
 func (b BaseURL) HostURL() string {
 	return strings.TrimSuffix(b.String(), b.Path())
@@ -44,7 +49,7 @@ func (b BaseURL) HostURL() string {
 
 // WithProtocol returns the BaseURL prefixed with the given protocol.
 // The Protocol is normally of the form "scheme://", i.e. "webcal://".
-func (b BaseURL) WithProtocol(protocol string) (string, error) {
+func (b BaseURL) WithProtocol(protocol string) (BaseURL, error) {
 	u := b.URL()
 
 	scheme := protocol
@@ -62,10 +67,16 @@ func (b BaseURL) WithProtocol(protocol string) (string, error) {
 	if isFullProtocol && u.Opaque != "" {
 		u.Opaque = "//" + u.Opaque
 	} else if isOpaqueProtocol && u.Opaque == "" {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("cannot determine BaseURL for protocol %q", protocol)
+		return BaseURL{}, fmt.Errorf("cannot determine BaseURL for protocol %q", protocol)
 	}
 
-	return u.String(), nil
+	return newBaseURLFromURL(u)
+}
+
+func (b BaseURL) WithPort(port int) (BaseURL, error) {
+	u := b.URL()
+	u.Host = u.Hostname() + ":" + strconv.Itoa(port)
+	return newBaseURLFromURL(u)
 }
 
 // URL returns a copy of the internal URL.
@@ -75,13 +86,25 @@ func (b BaseURL) URL() *url.URL {
 	return &c
 }
 
-func newBaseURLFromString(b string) (BaseURL, error) {
-	var result BaseURL
-
-	base, err := url.Parse(b)
+func NewBaseURLFromString(b string) (BaseURL, error) {
+	u, err := url.Parse(b)
 	if err != nil {
-		return result, err
+		return BaseURL{}, err
+	}
+	return newBaseURLFromURL(u)
+
+}
+
+func newBaseURLFromURL(u *url.URL) (BaseURL, error) {
+	baseURL := BaseURL{url: u, WithPath: u.String()}
+	var baseURLNoPath = baseURL.URL()
+	baseURLNoPath.Path = ""
+	baseURL.WithoutPath = baseURLNoPath.String()
+
+	basePath := u.Path
+	if basePath != "" && basePath != "/" {
+		baseURL.BasePath = basePath
 	}
 
-	return BaseURL{url: base, urlStr: base.String()}, nil
+	return baseURL, nil
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/paths/baseURL_test.go b/common/urls/baseURL_test.go
index 77095bb7d..95dc73339 100644
--- a/hugolib/paths/baseURL_test.go
+++ b/common/urls/baseURL_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package paths
+package urls
 
 import (
 	"testing"
@@ -21,46 +21,46 @@ import (
 
 func TestBaseURL(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	b, err := newBaseURLFromString("http://example.com")
+	b, err := NewBaseURLFromString("http://example.com")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(b.String(), qt.Equals, "http://example.com")
 
 	p, err := b.WithProtocol("webcal://")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(p, qt.Equals, "webcal://example.com")
+	c.Assert(p.String(), qt.Equals, "webcal://example.com")
 
 	p, err = b.WithProtocol("webcal")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(p, qt.Equals, "webcal://example.com")
+	c.Assert(p.String(), qt.Equals, "webcal://example.com")
 
 	_, err = b.WithProtocol("mailto:")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	b, err = newBaseURLFromString("mailto:[email protected]")
+	b, err = NewBaseURLFromString("mailto:[email protected]")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(b.String(), qt.Equals, "mailto:[email protected]")
 
 	// These are pretty constructed
 	p, err = b.WithProtocol("webcal")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(p, qt.Equals, "webcal:[email protected]")
+	c.Assert(p.String(), qt.Equals, "webcal:[email protected]")
 
 	p, err = b.WithProtocol("webcal://")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(p, qt.Equals, "webcal://[email protected]")
+	c.Assert(p.String(), qt.Equals, "webcal://[email protected]")
 
 	// Test with "non-URLs". Some people will try to use these as a way to get
 	// relative URLs working etc.
-	b, err = newBaseURLFromString("/")
+	b, err = NewBaseURLFromString("/")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(b.String(), qt.Equals, "/")
 
-	b, err = newBaseURLFromString("")
+	b, err = NewBaseURLFromString("")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(b.String(), qt.Equals, "")
 
 	// BaseURL with sub path
-	b, err = newBaseURLFromString("http://example.com/sub")
+	b, err = NewBaseURLFromString("http://example.com/sub")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(b.String(), qt.Equals, "http://example.com/sub")
 	c.Assert(b.HostURL(), qt.Equals, "http://example.com")
diff --git a/config/allconfig/allconfig.go b/config/allconfig/allconfig.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..4daae3ccb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/allconfig/allconfig.go
@@ -0,0 +1,813 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+// Package allconfig contains the full configuration for Hugo.
+// <docsmeta>{ "name": "Configuration", "description": "This section holds all configiration options in Hugo." }</docsmeta>
+package allconfig
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"reflect"
+	"regexp"
+	"sort"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/urls"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/privacy"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/services"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deploy"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/markup_config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/minifiers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/navigation"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/related"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/images"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page/pagemeta"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+
+	xmaps "golang.org/x/exp/maps"
+)
+
+// InternalConfig is the internal configuration for Hugo, not read from any user provided config file.
+type InternalConfig struct {
+	// Server mode?
+	Running bool
+
+	Quiet             bool
+	Verbose           bool
+	Clock             string
+	Watch             bool
+	DisableLiveReload bool
+	LiveReloadPort    int
+}
+
+type Config struct {
+	// For internal use only.
+	Internal InternalConfig `mapstructure:"-" json:"-"`
+	// For internal use only.
+	C ConfigCompiled `mapstructure:"-" json:"-"`
+
+	RootConfig
+
+	// Author information.
+	Author map[string]any
+
+	// Social links.
+	Social map[string]string
+
+	// The build configuration section contains build-related configuration options.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["build"] }</docsmeta>
+	Build config.BuildConfig `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The caches configuration section contains cache-related configuration options.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["caches"] }</docsmeta>
+	Caches filecache.Configs `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The markup configuration section contains markup-related configuration options.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["markup"] }</docsmeta>
+	Markup markup_config.Config `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The mediatypes configuration section maps the MIME type (a string) to a configuration object for that type.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["mediatypes"], "refs": ["types:media:type"] }</docsmeta>
+	MediaTypes *config.ConfigNamespace[map[string]media.MediaTypeConfig, media.Types] `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	Imaging *config.ConfigNamespace[images.ImagingConfig, images.ImagingConfigInternal] `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The outputformats configuration sections maps a format name (a string) to a configuration object for that format.
+	OutputFormats *config.ConfigNamespace[map[string]output.OutputFormatConfig, output.Formats] `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The outputs configuration section maps a Page Kind (a string) to a slice of output formats.
+	// This can be overridden in the front matter.
+	Outputs map[string][]string `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The cascade configuration section contains the top level front matter cascade configuration options,
+	// a slice of page matcher and params to apply to those pages.
+	Cascade *config.ConfigNamespace[[]page.PageMatcherParamsConfig, map[page.PageMatcher]maps.Params] `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Menu configuration.
+	// <docsmeta>{"refs": ["config:languages:menus"] }</docsmeta>
+	Menus *config.ConfigNamespace[map[string]navigation.MenuConfig, navigation.Menus] `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The deployment configuration section contains for hugo deploy.
+	Deployment deploy.DeployConfig `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Module configuration.
+	Module modules.Config `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Front matter configuration.
+	Frontmatter pagemeta.FrontmatterConfig `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Minification configuration.
+	Minify minifiers.MinifyConfig `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Permalink configuration.
+	Permalinks map[string]string `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Taxonomy configuration.
+	Taxonomies map[string]string `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Sitemap configuration.
+	Sitemap config.SitemapConfig `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Related content configuration.
+	Related related.Config `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Server configuration.
+	Server config.Server `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Privacy configuration.
+	Privacy privacy.Config `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Security configuration.
+	Security security.Config `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// Services configuration.
+	Services services.Config `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// User provided parameters.
+	// <docsmeta>{"refs": ["config:languages:params"] }</docsmeta>
+	Params maps.Params `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// The languages configuration sections maps a language code (a string) to a configuration object for that language.
+	Languages map[string]langs.LanguageConfig `mapstructure:"-"`
+
+	// UglyURLs configuration. Either a boolean or a sections map.
+	UglyURLs any `mapstructure:"-"`
+}
+
+type configCompiler interface {
+	CompileConfig() error
+}
+
+func (c Config) cloneForLang() *Config {
+	x := c
+	// Collapse all static dirs to one.
+	x.StaticDir = x.staticDirs()
+	// These will go away soon ...
+	x.StaticDir0 = nil
+	x.StaticDir1 = nil
+	x.StaticDir2 = nil
+	x.StaticDir3 = nil
+	x.StaticDir4 = nil
+	x.StaticDir5 = nil
+	x.StaticDir6 = nil
+	x.StaticDir7 = nil
+	x.StaticDir8 = nil
+	x.StaticDir9 = nil
+	x.StaticDir10 = nil
+
+	return &x
+}
+
+func (c *Config) CompileConfig() error {
+	s := c.Timeout
+	if _, err := strconv.Atoi(s); err == nil {
+		// A number, assume seconds.
+		s = s + "s"
+	}
+	timeout, err := time.ParseDuration(s)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to parse timeout: %s", err)
+	}
+	disabledKinds := make(map[string]bool)
+	for _, kind := range c.DisableKinds {
+		disabledKinds[strings.ToLower(kind)] = true
+	}
+	kindOutputFormats := make(map[string]output.Formats)
+	isRssDisabled := disabledKinds["rss"]
+	outputFormats := c.OutputFormats.Config
+	for kind, formats := range c.Outputs {
+		if disabledKinds[kind] {
+			continue
+		}
+		for _, format := range formats {
+			if isRssDisabled && format == "rss" {
+				// Legacy config.
+				continue
+			}
+			f, found := outputFormats.GetByName(format)
+			if !found {
+				return fmt.Errorf("unknown output format %q for kind %q", format, kind)
+			}
+			kindOutputFormats[kind] = append(kindOutputFormats[kind], f)
+		}
+	}
+
+	disabledLangs := make(map[string]bool)
+	for _, lang := range c.DisableLanguages {
+		if lang == c.DefaultContentLanguage {
+			return fmt.Errorf("cannot disable default content language %q", lang)
+		}
+		disabledLangs[lang] = true
+	}
+
+	ignoredErrors := make(map[string]bool)
+	for _, err := range c.IgnoreErrors {
+		ignoredErrors[strings.ToLower(err)] = true
+	}
+
+	baseURL, err := urls.NewBaseURLFromString(c.BaseURL)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	isUglyURL := func(section string) bool {
+		switch v := c.UglyURLs.(type) {
+		case bool:
+			return v
+		case map[string]bool:
+			return v[section]
+		default:
+			return false
+		}
+	}
+
+	ignoreFile := func(s string) bool {
+		return false
+	}
+	if len(c.IgnoreFiles) > 0 {
+		regexps := make([]*regexp.Regexp, len(c.IgnoreFiles))
+		for i, pattern := range c.IgnoreFiles {
+			var err error
+			regexps[i], err = regexp.Compile(pattern)
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("failed to compile ignoreFiles pattern %q: %s", pattern, err)
+			}
+		}
+		ignoreFile = func(s string) bool {
+			for _, r := range regexps {
+				if r.MatchString(s) {
+					return true
+				}
+			}
+			return false
+		}
+	}
+
+	var clock time.Time
+	if c.Internal.Clock != "" {
+		var err error
+		clock, err = time.Parse(time.RFC3339, c.Internal.Clock)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("failed to parse clock: %s", err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	c.C = ConfigCompiled{
+		Timeout:           timeout,
+		BaseURL:           baseURL,
+		BaseURLLiveReload: baseURL,
+		DisabledKinds:     disabledKinds,
+		DisabledLanguages: disabledLangs,
+		IgnoredErrors:     ignoredErrors,
+		KindOutputFormats: kindOutputFormats,
+		CreateTitle:       helpers.GetTitleFunc(c.TitleCaseStyle),
+		IsUglyURLSection:  isUglyURL,
+		IgnoreFile:        ignoreFile,
+		MainSections:      c.MainSections,
+		Clock:             clock,
+	}
+
+	for _, s := range allDecoderSetups {
+		if getCompiler := s.getCompiler; getCompiler != nil {
+			if err := getCompiler(c).CompileConfig(); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c Config) IsKindEnabled(kind string) bool {
+	return !c.C.DisabledKinds[kind]
+}
+
+func (c Config) IsLangDisabled(lang string) bool {
+	return c.C.DisabledLanguages[lang]
+}
+
+// ConfigCompiled holds values and functions that are derived from the config.
+type ConfigCompiled struct {
+	Timeout           time.Duration
+	BaseURL           urls.BaseURL
+	BaseURLLiveReload urls.BaseURL
+	KindOutputFormats map[string]output.Formats
+	DisabledKinds     map[string]bool
+	DisabledLanguages map[string]bool
+	IgnoredErrors     map[string]bool
+	CreateTitle       func(s string) string
+	IsUglyURLSection  func(section string) bool
+	IgnoreFile        func(filename string) bool
+	MainSections      []string
+	Clock             time.Time
+}
+
+// This may be set after the config is compiled.
+func (c *ConfigCompiled) SetMainSections(sections []string) {
+	c.MainSections = sections
+}
+
+// This is set after the config is compiled by the server command.
+func (c *ConfigCompiled) SetBaseURL(baseURL, baseURLLiveReload urls.BaseURL) {
+	c.BaseURL = baseURL
+	c.BaseURLLiveReload = baseURLLiveReload
+}
+
+// RootConfig holds all the top-level configuration options in Hugo
+type RootConfig struct {
+
+	// The base URL of the site.
+	// Note that the default value is empty, but Hugo requires a valid URL (e.g. "https://example.com/") to work properly.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["URL"] }</docsmeta>
+	BaseURL string
+
+	// Whether to build content marked as draft.X
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["draft"] }</docsmeta>
+	BuildDrafts bool
+
+	// Whether to build content with expiryDate in the past.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["expiryDate"] }</docsmeta>
+	BuildExpired bool
+
+	// Whether to build content with publishDate in the future.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["publishDate"] }</docsmeta>
+	BuildFuture bool
+
+	// Copyright information.
+	Copyright string
+
+	// The language to apply to content without any Clolanguage indicator.
+	DefaultContentLanguage string
+
+	// By defefault, we put the default content language in the root and the others below their language ID, e.g. /no/.
+	// Set this to true to put all languages below their language ID.
+	DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir bool
+
+	// Disable creation of alias redirect pages.
+	DisableAliases bool
+
+	// Disable lower casing of path segments.
+	DisablePathToLower bool
+
+	// Disable page kinds from build.
+	DisableKinds []string
+
+	// A list of languages to disable.
+	DisableLanguages []string
+
+	// Disable the injection of the Hugo generator tag on the home page.
+	DisableHugoGeneratorInject bool
+
+	// Enable replacement in Pages' Content of Emoji shortcodes with their equivalent Unicode characters.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["Content", "Unicode"] }</docsmeta>
+	EnableEmoji bool
+
+	// THe main section(s) of the site.
+	// If not set, Hugo will try to guess this from the content.
+	MainSections []string
+
+	// Enable robots.txt generation.
+	EnableRobotsTXT bool
+
+	// When enabled, Hugo will apply Git version information to each Page if possible, which
+	// can be used to keep lastUpdated in synch and to print version information.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["Page"] }</docsmeta>
+	EnableGitInfo bool
+
+	// Enable to track, calculate and print metrics.
+	TemplateMetrics bool
+
+	// Enable to track, print and calculate metric hints.
+	TemplateMetricsHints bool
+
+	// Enable to disable the build lock file.
+	NoBuildLock bool
+
+	// A list of error IDs to ignore.
+	IgnoreErrors []string
+
+	// A list of regexps that match paths to ignore.
+	// Deprecated: Use the settings on module imports.
+	IgnoreFiles []string
+
+	// Ignore cache.
+	IgnoreCache bool
+
+	// Enable to print greppable placeholders (on the form "[i18n] TRANSLATIONID") for missing translation strings.
+	EnableMissingTranslationPlaceholders bool
+
+	// Enable to print warnings for missing translation strings.
+	LogI18nWarnings bool
+
+	// ENable to print warnings for multiple files published to the same destination.
+	LogPathWarnings bool
+
+	// The configured environment. Default is "development" for server and "production" for build.
+	Environment string
+
+	// The default language code.
+	LanguageCode string
+
+	// Enable if the site content has CJK language (Chinese, Japanese, or Korean). This affects how Hugo counts words.
+	HasCJKLanguage bool
+
+	// The default number of pages per page when paginating.
+	Paginate int
+
+	// The path to use when creating pagination URLs, e.g. "page" in /page/2/.
+	PaginatePath string
+
+	// Whether to pluralize default list titles.
+	// Note that this currently only works for English, but you can provide your own title in the content file's front matter.
+	PluralizeListTitles bool
+
+	// Make all relative URLs absolute using the baseURL.
+	// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["baseURL"] }</docsmeta>
+	CanonifyURLs bool
+
+	// Enable this to make all relative URLs relative to content root. Note that this does not affect absolute URLs.
+	RelativeURLs bool
+
+	// Removes non-spacing marks from composite characters in content paths.
+	RemovePathAccents bool
+
+	// Whether to track and print unused templates during the build.
+	PrintUnusedTemplates bool
+
+	// URL to be used as a placeholder when a page reference cannot be found in ref or relref. Is used as-is.
+	RefLinksNotFoundURL string
+
+	// When using ref or relref to resolve page links and a link cannot be resolved, it will be logged with this log level.
+	// Valid values are ERROR (default) or WARNING. Any ERROR will fail the build (exit -1).
+	RefLinksErrorLevel string
+
+	// This will create a menu with all the sections as menu items and all the sections’ pages as “shadow-members”.
+	SectionPagesMenu string
+
+	// The length of text in words to show in a .Summary.
+	SummaryLength int
+
+	// The site title.
+	Title string
+
+	// The theme(s) to use.
+	// See Modules for more a more flexible way to load themes.
+	Theme []string
+
+	// Timeout for generating page contents, specified as a duration or in milliseconds.
+	Timeout string
+
+	// The time zone (or location), e.g. Europe/Oslo, used to parse front matter dates without such information and in the time function.
+	TimeZone string
+
+	// Set titleCaseStyle to specify the title style used by the title template function and the automatic section titles in Hugo.
+	// It defaults to AP Stylebook for title casing, but you can also set it to Chicago or Go (every word starts with a capital letter).
+	TitleCaseStyle string
+
+	// The editor used for opening up new content.
+	NewContentEditor string
+
+	// Don't sync modification time of files for the static mounts.
+	NoTimes bool
+
+	// Don't sync modification time of files for the static mounts.
+	NoChmod bool
+
+	// Clean the destination folder before a new build.
+	// This currently only handles static files.
+	CleanDestinationDir bool
+
+	// A Glob pattern of module paths to ignore in the _vendor folder.
+	IgnoreVendorPaths string
+
+	config.CommonDirs `mapstructure:",squash"`
+
+	// The odd constructs below are kept for backwards compatibility.
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir0 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir1 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir2 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir3 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir4 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir5 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir6 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir7 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir8 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir9 []string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mount config instead.
+	StaticDir10 []string
+}
+
+func (c RootConfig) staticDirs() []string {
+	var dirs []string
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir0...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir1...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir2...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir3...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir4...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir5...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir6...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir7...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir8...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir9...)
+	dirs = append(dirs, c.StaticDir10...)
+	return helpers.UniqueStringsReuse(dirs)
+}
+
+type Configs struct {
+	Base                *Config
+	LoadingInfo         config.LoadConfigResult
+	LanguageConfigMap   map[string]*Config
+	LanguageConfigSlice []*Config
+
+	IsMultihost           bool
+	Languages             langs.Languages
+	LanguagesDefaultFirst langs.Languages
+
+	Modules       modules.Modules
+	ModulesClient *modules.Client
+
+	configLangs []config.AllProvider
+}
+
+func (c *Configs) IsZero() bool {
+	// A config always has at least one language.
+	return c == nil || len(c.Languages) == 0
+}
+
+func (c *Configs) Init() error {
+	c.configLangs = make([]config.AllProvider, len(c.Languages))
+	for i, l := range c.LanguagesDefaultFirst {
+		c.configLangs[i] = ConfigLanguage{
+			m:          c,
+			config:     c.LanguageConfigMap[l.Lang],
+			baseConfig: c.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig,
+			language:   l,
+		}
+	}
+
+	if len(c.Modules) == 0 {
+		return errors.New("no modules loaded (ned at least the main module)")
+	}
+
+	// Apply default project mounts.
+	if err := modules.ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(c.Modules[0], c.configLangs...); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c Configs) ConfigLangs() []config.AllProvider {
+	return c.configLangs
+}
+
+func (c Configs) GetFirstLanguageConfig() config.AllProvider {
+	return c.configLangs[0]
+}
+
+func (c Configs) GetByLang(lang string) config.AllProvider {
+	for _, l := range c.configLangs {
+		if l.Language().Lang == lang {
+			return l
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// FromLoadConfigResult creates a new Config from res.
+func FromLoadConfigResult(fs afero.Fs, res config.LoadConfigResult) (*Configs, error) {
+	if !res.Cfg.IsSet("languages") {
+		// We need at least one
+		lang := res.Cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage")
+		res.Cfg.Set("languages", maps.Params{lang: maps.Params{}})
+	}
+	bcfg := res.BaseConfig
+	cfg := res.Cfg
+
+	all := &Config{}
+	err := decodeConfigFromParams(fs, bcfg, cfg, all, nil)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	langConfigMap := make(map[string]*Config)
+	var langConfigs []*Config
+
+	languagesConfig := cfg.GetStringMap("languages")
+	var isMultiHost bool
+
+	if err := all.CompileConfig(); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	for k, v := range languagesConfig {
+		mergedConfig := config.New()
+		var differentRootKeys []string
+		switch x := v.(type) {
+		case maps.Params:
+			for kk, vv := range x {
+				if kk == "baseurl" {
+					// baseURL configure don the language level is a multihost setup.
+					isMultiHost = true
+				}
+				mergedConfig.Set(kk, vv)
+				if cfg.IsSet(kk) {
+					rootv := cfg.Get(kk)
+					// This overrides a root key and potentially needs a merge.
+					if !reflect.DeepEqual(rootv, vv) {
+						switch vvv := vv.(type) {
+						case maps.Params:
+							differentRootKeys = append(differentRootKeys, kk)
+
+							// Use the language value as base.
+							mergedConfigEntry := xmaps.Clone(vvv)
+							// Merge in the root value.
+							maps.MergeParams(mergedConfigEntry, rootv.(maps.Params))
+
+							mergedConfig.Set(kk, mergedConfigEntry)
+						default:
+							// Apply new values to the root.
+							differentRootKeys = append(differentRootKeys, "")
+						}
+					}
+				} else {
+					// Apply new values to the root.
+					differentRootKeys = append(differentRootKeys, "")
+				}
+			}
+			differentRootKeys = helpers.UniqueStringsSorted(differentRootKeys)
+
+			if len(differentRootKeys) == 0 {
+				langConfigMap[k] = all
+				continue
+			}
+
+			// Create a copy of the complete config and replace the root keys with the language specific ones.
+			clone := all.cloneForLang()
+			if err := decodeConfigFromParams(fs, bcfg, mergedConfig, clone, differentRootKeys); err != nil {
+				return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to decode config for language %q: %w", k, err)
+			}
+			if err := clone.CompileConfig(); err != nil {
+				return nil, err
+			}
+			langConfigMap[k] = clone
+		case maps.ParamsMergeStrategy:
+		default:
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type in languages config: %T", v))
+
+		}
+	}
+
+	var languages langs.Languages
+	defaultContentLanguage := all.DefaultContentLanguage
+	for k, v := range langConfigMap {
+		languageConf := v.Languages[k]
+		language, err := langs.NewLanguage(k, defaultContentLanguage, v.TimeZone, languageConf)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		languages = append(languages, language)
+	}
+
+	// Sort the sites by language weight (if set) or lang.
+	sort.Slice(languages, func(i, j int) bool {
+		li := languages[i]
+		lj := languages[j]
+		if li.Weight != lj.Weight {
+			return li.Weight < lj.Weight
+		}
+		return li.Lang < lj.Lang
+	})
+
+	for _, l := range languages {
+		langConfigs = append(langConfigs, langConfigMap[l.Lang])
+	}
+
+	var languagesDefaultFirst langs.Languages
+	for _, l := range languages {
+		if l.Lang == defaultContentLanguage {
+			languagesDefaultFirst = append(languagesDefaultFirst, l)
+		}
+	}
+	for _, l := range languages {
+		if l.Lang != defaultContentLanguage {
+			languagesDefaultFirst = append(languagesDefaultFirst, l)
+		}
+	}
+
+	bcfg.PublishDir = all.PublishDir
+	res.BaseConfig = bcfg
+
+	cm := &Configs{
+		Base:                  all,
+		LanguageConfigMap:     langConfigMap,
+		LanguageConfigSlice:   langConfigs,
+		LoadingInfo:           res,
+		IsMultihost:           isMultiHost,
+		Languages:             languages,
+		LanguagesDefaultFirst: languagesDefaultFirst,
+	}
+
+	return cm, nil
+}
+
+func decodeConfigFromParams(fs afero.Fs, bcfg config.BaseConfig, p config.Provider, target *Config, keys []string) error {
+
+	var decoderSetups []decodeWeight
+
+	if len(keys) == 0 {
+		for _, v := range allDecoderSetups {
+			decoderSetups = append(decoderSetups, v)
+		}
+	} else {
+		for _, key := range keys {
+			if v, found := allDecoderSetups[key]; found {
+				decoderSetups = append(decoderSetups, v)
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("unknown config key %q", key)
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Sort them to get the dependency order right.
+	sort.Slice(decoderSetups, func(i, j int) bool {
+		ki, kj := decoderSetups[i], decoderSetups[j]
+		if ki.weight == kj.weight {
+			return ki.key < kj.key
+		}
+		return ki.weight < kj.weight
+	})
+
+	for _, v := range decoderSetups {
+		p := decodeConfig{p: p, c: target, fs: fs, bcfg: bcfg}
+		if err := v.decode(v, p); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("failed to decode %q: %w", v.key, err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func createDefaultOutputFormats(allFormats output.Formats) map[string][]string {
+	if len(allFormats) == 0 {
+		panic("no output formats")
+	}
+	rssOut, rssFound := allFormats.GetByName(output.RSSFormat.Name)
+	htmlOut, _ := allFormats.GetByName(output.HTMLFormat.Name)
+
+	defaultListTypes := []string{htmlOut.Name}
+	if rssFound {
+		defaultListTypes = append(defaultListTypes, rssOut.Name)
+	}
+
+	m := map[string][]string{
+		page.KindPage:     {htmlOut.Name},
+		page.KindHome:     defaultListTypes,
+		page.KindSection:  defaultListTypes,
+		page.KindTerm:     defaultListTypes,
+		page.KindTaxonomy: defaultListTypes,
+	}
+
+	// May be disabled
+	if rssFound {
+		m["rss"] = []string{rssOut.Name}
+	}
+
+	return m
+}
diff --git a/config/allconfig/alldecoders.go b/config/allconfig/alldecoders.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e8536b667
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/allconfig/alldecoders.go
@@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package allconfig
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/privacy"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/services"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deploy"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/markup_config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/minifiers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/navigation"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/related"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/images"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page/pagemeta"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+	"github.com/spf13/cast"
+)
+
+type decodeConfig struct {
+	p    config.Provider
+	c    *Config
+	fs   afero.Fs
+	bcfg config.BaseConfig
+}
+
+type decodeWeight struct {
+	key         string
+	decode      func(decodeWeight, decodeConfig) error
+	getCompiler func(c *Config) configCompiler
+	weight      int
+}
+
+var allDecoderSetups = map[string]decodeWeight{
+	"": {
+		key:    "",
+		weight: -100, // Always first.
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			return mapstructure.WeakDecode(p.p.Get(""), &p.c.RootConfig)
+		},
+	},
+	"imaging": {
+		key: "imaging",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Imaging, err = images.DecodeConfig(p.p.GetStringMap(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"caches": {
+		key: "caches",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Caches, err = filecache.DecodeConfig(p.fs, p.bcfg, p.p.GetStringMap(d.key))
+			if p.c.IgnoreCache {
+				// Set MaxAge in all caches to 0.
+				for k, cache := range p.c.Caches {
+					cache.MaxAge = 0
+					p.c.Caches[k] = cache
+				}
+			}
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"build": {
+		key: "build",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			p.c.Build = config.DecodeBuildConfig(p.p)
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"frontmatter": {
+		key: "frontmatter",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Frontmatter, err = pagemeta.DecodeFrontMatterConfig(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"markup": {
+		key: "markup",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Markup, err = markup_config.Decode(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"server": {
+		key: "server",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Server, err = config.DecodeServer(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+		getCompiler: func(c *Config) configCompiler {
+			return &c.Server
+		},
+	},
+	"minify": {
+		key: "minify",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Minify, err = minifiers.DecodeConfig(p.p.Get(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"mediaTypes": {
+		key: "mediaTypes",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.MediaTypes, err = media.DecodeTypes(p.p.GetStringMap(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"outputs": {
+		key: "outputs",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			defaults := createDefaultOutputFormats(p.c.OutputFormats.Config)
+			m := p.p.GetStringMap("outputs")
+			p.c.Outputs = make(map[string][]string)
+			for k, v := range m {
+				s := types.ToStringSlicePreserveString(v)
+				for i, v := range s {
+					s[i] = strings.ToLower(v)
+				}
+				p.c.Outputs[k] = s
+			}
+			// Apply defaults.
+			for k, v := range defaults {
+				if _, found := p.c.Outputs[k]; !found {
+					p.c.Outputs[k] = v
+				}
+			}
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"outputFormats": {
+		key: "outputFormats",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.OutputFormats, err = output.DecodeConfig(p.c.MediaTypes.Config, p.p.Get(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"params": {
+		key: "params",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			p.c.Params = maps.CleanConfigStringMap(p.p.GetStringMap("params"))
+			if p.c.Params == nil {
+				p.c.Params = make(map[string]any)
+			}
+
+			// Before Hugo 0.112.0 this was configured via site Params.
+			if mainSections, found := p.c.Params["mainsections"]; found {
+				p.c.MainSections = types.ToStringSlicePreserveString(mainSections)
+			}
+
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"module": {
+		key: "module",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Module, err = modules.DecodeConfig(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"permalinks": {
+		key: "permalinks",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			p.c.Permalinks = maps.CleanConfigStringMapString(p.p.GetStringMapString(d.key))
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"sitemap": {
+		key: "sitemap",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Sitemap, err = config.DecodeSitemap(config.SitemapConfig{Priority: -1, Filename: "sitemap.xml"}, p.p.GetStringMap(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"taxonomies": {
+		key: "taxonomies",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			p.c.Taxonomies = maps.CleanConfigStringMapString(p.p.GetStringMapString(d.key))
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"related": {
+		key:    "related",
+		weight: 100, // This needs to be decoded after taxonomies.
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			if p.p.IsSet(d.key) {
+				var err error
+				p.c.Related, err = related.DecodeConfig(p.p.GetParams(d.key))
+				if err != nil {
+					return fmt.Errorf("failed to decode related config: %w", err)
+				}
+			} else {
+				p.c.Related = related.DefaultConfig
+				if _, found := p.c.Taxonomies["tag"]; found {
+					p.c.Related.Add(related.IndexConfig{Name: "tags", Weight: 80})
+				}
+			}
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"languages": {
+		key: "languages",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Languages, err = langs.DecodeConfig(p.p.GetStringMap(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"cascade": {
+		key: "cascade",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Cascade, err = page.DecodeCascadeConfig(p.p.Get(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"menus": {
+		key: "menus",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Menus, err = navigation.DecodeConfig(p.p.Get(d.key))
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"privacy": {
+		key: "privacy",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Privacy, err = privacy.DecodeConfig(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"security": {
+		key: "security",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Security, err = security.DecodeConfig(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"services": {
+		key: "services",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Services, err = services.DecodeConfig(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"deployment": {
+		key: "deployment",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			var err error
+			p.c.Deployment, err = deploy.DecodeConfig(p.p)
+			return err
+		},
+	},
+	"author": {
+		key: "author",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			p.c.Author = p.p.GetStringMap(d.key)
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"social": {
+		key: "social",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			p.c.Social = p.p.GetStringMapString(d.key)
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"uglyurls": {
+		key: "uglyurls",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			v := p.p.Get(d.key)
+			switch vv := v.(type) {
+			case bool:
+				p.c.UglyURLs = vv
+			case string:
+				p.c.UglyURLs = vv == "true"
+			default:
+				p.c.UglyURLs = cast.ToStringMapBool(v)
+			}
+			return nil
+		},
+	},
+	"internal": {
+		key: "internal",
+		decode: func(d decodeWeight, p decodeConfig) error {
+			return mapstructure.WeakDecode(p.p.GetStringMap(d.key), &p.c.Internal)
+		},
+	},
+}
diff --git a/config/allconfig/configlanguage.go b/config/allconfig/configlanguage.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b28d54769
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/allconfig/configlanguage.go
@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package allconfig
+
+import (
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/urls"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+)
+
+type ConfigLanguage struct {
+	config     *Config
+	baseConfig config.BaseConfig
+
+	m        *Configs
+	language *langs.Language
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Language() *langs.Language {
+	return c.language
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Languages() langs.Languages {
+	return c.m.Languages
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) LanguagesDefaultFirst() langs.Languages {
+	return c.m.LanguagesDefaultFirst
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) BaseURL() urls.BaseURL {
+	return c.config.C.BaseURL
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) BaseURLLiveReload() urls.BaseURL {
+	return c.config.C.BaseURLLiveReload
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Environment() string {
+	return c.config.Environment
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) IsMultihost() bool {
+	return c.m.IsMultihost
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) IsMultiLingual() bool {
+	return len(c.m.Languages) > 1
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) TemplateMetrics() bool {
+	return c.config.TemplateMetrics
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) TemplateMetricsHints() bool {
+	return c.config.TemplateMetricsHints
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) IsLangDisabled(lang string) bool {
+	return c.config.C.DisabledLanguages[lang]
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) IgnoredErrors() map[string]bool {
+	return c.config.C.IgnoredErrors
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) NoBuildLock() bool {
+	return c.config.NoBuildLock
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) NewContentEditor() string {
+	return c.config.NewContentEditor
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Timeout() time.Duration {
+	return c.config.C.Timeout
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) BaseConfig() config.BaseConfig {
+	return c.baseConfig
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Dirs() config.CommonDirs {
+	return c.config.CommonDirs
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) DirsBase() config.CommonDirs {
+	return c.m.Base.CommonDirs
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Quiet() bool {
+	return c.m.Base.Internal.Quiet
+}
+
+// GetConfigSection is mostly used in tests. The switch statement isn't complete, but what's in use.
+func (c ConfigLanguage) GetConfigSection(s string) any {
+	switch s {
+	case "security":
+		return c.config.Security
+	case "build":
+		return c.config.Build
+	case "frontmatter":
+		return c.config.Frontmatter
+	case "caches":
+		return c.config.Caches
+	case "markup":
+		return c.config.Markup
+	case "mediaTypes":
+		return c.config.MediaTypes.Config
+	case "outputFormats":
+		return c.config.OutputFormats.Config
+	case "permalinks":
+		return c.config.Permalinks
+	case "minify":
+		return c.config.Minify
+	case "activeModules":
+		return c.m.Modules
+	case "deployment":
+		return c.config.Deployment
+	default:
+		panic("not implemented: " + s)
+	}
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) GetConfig() any {
+	return c.config
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) CanonifyURLs() bool {
+	return c.config.CanonifyURLs
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) IsUglyURLs(section string) bool {
+	return c.config.C.IsUglyURLSection(section)
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) IgnoreFile(s string) bool {
+	return c.config.C.IgnoreFile(s)
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) DisablePathToLower() bool {
+	return c.config.DisablePathToLower
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) RemovePathAccents() bool {
+	return c.config.RemovePathAccents
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) DefaultContentLanguage() string {
+	return c.config.DefaultContentLanguage
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir() bool {
+	return c.config.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) SummaryLength() int {
+	return c.config.SummaryLength
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) BuildExpired() bool {
+	return c.config.BuildExpired
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) BuildFuture() bool {
+	return c.config.BuildFuture
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) BuildDrafts() bool {
+	return c.config.BuildDrafts
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Running() bool {
+	return c.config.Internal.Running
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) PrintUnusedTemplates() bool {
+	return c.config.PrintUnusedTemplates
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) EnableMissingTranslationPlaceholders() bool {
+	return c.config.EnableMissingTranslationPlaceholders
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) LogI18nWarnings() bool {
+	return c.config.LogI18nWarnings
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) CreateTitle(s string) string {
+	return c.config.C.CreateTitle(s)
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) Paginate() int {
+	return c.config.Paginate
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) PaginatePath() string {
+	return c.config.PaginatePath
+}
+
+func (c ConfigLanguage) StaticDirs() []string {
+	return c.config.staticDirs()
+}
diff --git a/config/allconfig/integration_test.go b/config/allconfig/integration_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e96dbd296
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/allconfig/integration_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+package allconfig_test
+
+import (
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+
+	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
+)
+
+func TestDirsMount(t *testing.T) {
+
+	files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term"]
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+weight = 1
+[languages.sv]
+weight = 2
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = 'content/en'
+target = 'content'
+lang = 'en'
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = 'content/sv'
+target = 'content'
+lang = 'sv'
+-- content/en/p1.md --
+---
+title: "p1"
+---
+-- content/sv/p1.md --
+---
+title: "p1"
+---
+-- layouts/_default/single.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}
+	`
+
+	b := hugolib.NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+		hugolib.IntegrationTestConfig{T: t, TxtarString: files},
+	).Build()
+
+	//b.AssertFileContent("public/p1/index.html", "Title: p1")
+
+	sites := b.H.Sites
+	b.Assert(len(sites), qt.Equals, 2)
+
+	configs := b.H.Configs
+	mods := configs.Modules
+	b.Assert(len(mods), qt.Equals, 1)
+	mod := mods[0]
+	b.Assert(mod.Mounts(), qt.HasLen, 8)
+
+	enConcp := sites[0].Conf
+	enConf := enConcp.GetConfig().(*allconfig.Config)
+
+	b.Assert(enConcp.BaseURL().String(), qt.Equals, "https://example.com")
+	modConf := enConf.Module
+	b.Assert(modConf.Mounts, qt.HasLen, 2)
+	b.Assert(modConf.Mounts[0].Source, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("content/en"))
+	b.Assert(modConf.Mounts[0].Target, qt.Equals, "content")
+	b.Assert(modConf.Mounts[0].Lang, qt.Equals, "en")
+	b.Assert(modConf.Mounts[1].Source, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("content/sv"))
+	b.Assert(modConf.Mounts[1].Target, qt.Equals, "content")
+	b.Assert(modConf.Mounts[1].Lang, qt.Equals, "sv")
+
+}
diff --git a/config/allconfig/load.go b/config/allconfig/load.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9f27e867e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/allconfig/load.go
@@ -0,0 +1,559 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+// Package allconfig contains the full configuration for Hugo.
+package allconfig
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/gobwas/glob"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	hglob "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+)
+
+var ErrNoConfigFile = errors.New("Unable to locate config file or config directory. Perhaps you need to create a new site.\n       Run `hugo help new` for details.\n")
+
+func LoadConfig(d ConfigSourceDescriptor) (*Configs, error) {
+	if len(d.Environ) == 0 && !hugo.IsRunningAsTest() {
+		d.Environ = os.Environ()
+	}
+
+	l := &configLoader{ConfigSourceDescriptor: d, cfg: config.New()}
+	// Make sure we always do this, even in error situations,
+	// as we have commands (e.g. "hugo mod init") that will
+	// use a partial configuration to do its job.
+	defer l.deleteMergeStrategies()
+	res, _, err := l.loadConfigMain(d)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load config: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	configs, err := FromLoadConfigResult(d.Fs, res)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create config from result: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	moduleConfig, modulesClient, err := l.loadModules(configs)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load modules: %w", err)
+	}
+	if len(l.ModulesConfigFiles) > 0 {
+		// Config merged in from modules.
+		// Re-read the config.
+		configs, err = FromLoadConfigResult(d.Fs, res)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create config: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	configs.Modules = moduleConfig.ActiveModules
+	configs.ModulesClient = modulesClient
+
+	if err := configs.Init(); err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to init config: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return configs, nil
+
+}
+
+// ConfigSourceDescriptor describes where to find the config (e.g. config.toml etc.).
+type ConfigSourceDescriptor struct {
+	Fs     afero.Fs
+	Logger loggers.Logger
+
+	// Config received from the command line.
+	// These will override any config file settings.
+	Flags config.Provider
+
+	// Path to the config file to use, e.g. /my/project/config.toml
+	Filename string
+
+	// The (optional) directory for additional configuration files.
+	ConfigDir string
+
+	// production, development
+	Environment string
+
+	// Defaults to os.Environ if not set.
+	Environ []string
+}
+
+func (d ConfigSourceDescriptor) configFilenames() []string {
+	if d.Filename == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return strings.Split(d.Filename, ",")
+}
+
+type configLoader struct {
+	cfg        config.Provider
+	BaseConfig config.BaseConfig
+	ConfigSourceDescriptor
+
+	// collected
+	ModulesConfig      modules.ModulesConfig
+	ModulesConfigFiles []string
+}
+
+// Handle some legacy values.
+func (l configLoader) applyConfigAliases() error {
+	aliases := []types.KeyValueStr{{Key: "taxonomies", Value: "indexes"}}
+
+	for _, alias := range aliases {
+		if l.cfg.IsSet(alias.Key) {
+			vv := l.cfg.Get(alias.Key)
+			l.cfg.Set(alias.Value, vv)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) applyDefaultConfig() error {
+	defaultSettings := maps.Params{
+		"baseURL":                              "",
+		"cleanDestinationDir":                  false,
+		"watch":                                false,
+		"contentDir":                           "content",
+		"resourceDir":                          "resources",
+		"publishDir":                           "public",
+		"publishDirOrig":                       "public",
+		"themesDir":                            "themes",
+		"assetDir":                             "assets",
+		"layoutDir":                            "layouts",
+		"i18nDir":                              "i18n",
+		"dataDir":                              "data",
+		"archetypeDir":                         "archetypes",
+		"configDir":                            "config",
+		"staticDir":                            "static",
+		"buildDrafts":                          false,
+		"buildFuture":                          false,
+		"buildExpired":                         false,
+		"params":                               maps.Params{},
+		"environment":                          hugo.EnvironmentProduction,
+		"uglyURLs":                             false,
+		"verbose":                              false,
+		"ignoreCache":                          false,
+		"canonifyURLs":                         false,
+		"relativeURLs":                         false,
+		"removePathAccents":                    false,
+		"titleCaseStyle":                       "AP",
+		"taxonomies":                           maps.Params{"tag": "tags", "category": "categories"},
+		"permalinks":                           maps.Params{},
+		"sitemap":                              maps.Params{"priority": -1, "filename": "sitemap.xml"},
+		"menus":                                maps.Params{},
+		"disableLiveReload":                    false,
+		"pluralizeListTitles":                  true,
+		"forceSyncStatic":                      false,
+		"footnoteAnchorPrefix":                 "",
+		"footnoteReturnLinkContents":           "",
+		"newContentEditor":                     "",
+		"paginate":                             10,
+		"paginatePath":                         "page",
+		"summaryLength":                        70,
+		"rssLimit":                             -1,
+		"sectionPagesMenu":                     "",
+		"disablePathToLower":                   false,
+		"hasCJKLanguage":                       false,
+		"enableEmoji":                          false,
+		"defaultContentLanguage":               "en",
+		"defaultContentLanguageInSubdir":       false,
+		"enableMissingTranslationPlaceholders": false,
+		"enableGitInfo":                        false,
+		"ignoreFiles":                          make([]string, 0),
+		"disableAliases":                       false,
+		"debug":                                false,
+		"disableFastRender":                    false,
+		"timeout":                              "30s",
+		"timeZone":                             "",
+		"enableInlineShortcodes":               false,
+	}
+
+	l.cfg.SetDefaults(defaultSettings)
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) normalizeCfg(cfg config.Provider) error {
+	minify := cfg.Get("minify")
+	if b, ok := minify.(bool); ok && b {
+		cfg.Set("minify", maps.Params{"minifyOutput": true})
+	}
+
+	// Simplify later merge.
+	languages := cfg.GetStringMap("languages")
+	for _, v := range languages {
+		switch m := v.(type) {
+		case maps.Params:
+			// params have merge strategy deep by default.
+			// The languages config key has strategy none by default.
+			// This means that if these two sections does not exist on the left side,
+			// they will not get merged in, so just create some empty maps.
+			if _, ok := m["params"]; !ok {
+				m["params"] = maps.Params{}
+			}
+		}
+
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) cleanExternalConfig(cfg config.Provider) error {
+	if cfg.IsSet("internal") {
+		cfg.Set("internal", nil)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) applyFlagsOverrides(cfg config.Provider) error {
+	for _, k := range cfg.Keys() {
+		l.cfg.Set(k, cfg.Get(k))
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) applyOsEnvOverrides(environ []string) error {
+	if len(environ) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	const delim = "__env__delim"
+
+	// Extract all that start with the HUGO prefix.
+	// The delimiter is the following rune, usually "_".
+	const hugoEnvPrefix = "HUGO"
+	var hugoEnv []types.KeyValueStr
+	for _, v := range environ {
+		key, val := config.SplitEnvVar(v)
+		if strings.HasPrefix(key, hugoEnvPrefix) {
+			delimiterAndKey := strings.TrimPrefix(key, hugoEnvPrefix)
+			if len(delimiterAndKey) < 2 {
+				continue
+			}
+			// Allow delimiters to be case sensitive.
+			// It turns out there isn't that many allowed special
+			// chars in environment variables when used in Bash and similar,
+			// so variables on the form HUGOxPARAMSxFOO=bar is one option.
+			key := strings.ReplaceAll(delimiterAndKey[1:], delimiterAndKey[:1], delim)
+			key = strings.ToLower(key)
+			hugoEnv = append(hugoEnv, types.KeyValueStr{
+				Key:   key,
+				Value: val,
+			})
+
+		}
+	}
+
+	for _, env := range hugoEnv {
+		existing, nestedKey, owner, err := maps.GetNestedParamFn(env.Key, delim, l.cfg.Get)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		if existing != nil {
+			val, err := metadecoders.Default.UnmarshalStringTo(env.Value, existing)
+			if err != nil {
+				continue
+			}
+
+			if owner != nil {
+				owner[nestedKey] = val
+			} else {
+				l.cfg.Set(env.Key, val)
+			}
+		} else if nestedKey != "" {
+			owner[nestedKey] = env.Value
+		} else {
+			// The container does not exist yet.
+			l.cfg.Set(strings.ReplaceAll(env.Key, delim, "."), env.Value)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (l *configLoader) loadConfigMain(d ConfigSourceDescriptor) (config.LoadConfigResult, modules.ModulesConfig, error) {
+	var res config.LoadConfigResult
+
+	if d.Flags != nil {
+		if err := l.normalizeCfg(d.Flags); err != nil {
+			return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+		}
+	}
+
+	if d.Fs == nil {
+		return res, l.ModulesConfig, errors.New("no filesystem provided")
+	}
+
+	if d.Flags != nil {
+		if err := l.applyFlagsOverrides(d.Flags); err != nil {
+			return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+		}
+		workingDir := filepath.Clean(l.cfg.GetString("workingDir"))
+
+		l.BaseConfig = config.BaseConfig{
+			WorkingDir: workingDir,
+			ThemesDir:  paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, l.cfg.GetString("themesDir")),
+		}
+
+	}
+
+	names := d.configFilenames()
+
+	if names != nil {
+		for _, name := range names {
+			var filename string
+			filename, err := l.loadConfig(name)
+			if err == nil {
+				res.ConfigFiles = append(res.ConfigFiles, filename)
+			} else if err != ErrNoConfigFile {
+				return res, l.ModulesConfig, l.wrapFileError(err, filename)
+			}
+		}
+	} else {
+		for _, name := range config.DefaultConfigNames {
+			var filename string
+			filename, err := l.loadConfig(name)
+			if err == nil {
+				res.ConfigFiles = append(res.ConfigFiles, filename)
+				break
+			} else if err != ErrNoConfigFile {
+				return res, l.ModulesConfig, l.wrapFileError(err, filename)
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	if d.ConfigDir != "" {
+		absConfigDir := paths.AbsPathify(l.BaseConfig.WorkingDir, d.ConfigDir)
+		dcfg, dirnames, err := config.LoadConfigFromDir(l.Fs, absConfigDir, l.Environment)
+		if err == nil {
+			if len(dirnames) > 0 {
+				if err := l.normalizeCfg(dcfg); err != nil {
+					return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+				}
+				if err := l.cleanExternalConfig(dcfg); err != nil {
+					return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+				}
+				l.cfg.Set("", dcfg.Get(""))
+				res.ConfigFiles = append(res.ConfigFiles, dirnames...)
+			}
+		} else if err != ErrNoConfigFile {
+			if len(dirnames) > 0 {
+				return res, l.ModulesConfig, l.wrapFileError(err, dirnames[0])
+			}
+			return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+		}
+	}
+
+	res.Cfg = l.cfg
+
+	if err := l.applyDefaultConfig(); err != nil {
+		return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+	}
+
+	// Some settings are used before we're done collecting all settings,
+	// so apply OS environment both before and after.
+	if err := l.applyOsEnvOverrides(d.Environ); err != nil {
+		return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+	}
+
+	workingDir := filepath.Clean(l.cfg.GetString("workingDir"))
+
+	l.BaseConfig = config.BaseConfig{
+		WorkingDir: workingDir,
+		CacheDir:   l.cfg.GetString("cacheDir"),
+		ThemesDir:  paths.AbsPathify(workingDir, l.cfg.GetString("themesDir")),
+	}
+
+	var err error
+	l.BaseConfig.CacheDir, err = helpers.GetCacheDir(l.Fs, l.BaseConfig.CacheDir)
+	if err != nil {
+		return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+	}
+
+	res.BaseConfig = l.BaseConfig
+
+	l.cfg.SetDefaultMergeStrategy()
+
+	res.ConfigFiles = append(res.ConfigFiles, l.ModulesConfigFiles...)
+
+	if d.Flags != nil {
+		if err := l.applyFlagsOverrides(d.Flags); err != nil {
+			return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+		}
+	}
+
+	if err := l.applyOsEnvOverrides(d.Environ); err != nil {
+		return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+	}
+
+	if err = l.applyConfigAliases(); err != nil {
+		return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+	}
+
+	return res, l.ModulesConfig, err
+}
+
+func (l *configLoader) loadModules(configs *Configs) (modules.ModulesConfig, *modules.Client, error) {
+	bcfg := configs.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig
+	conf := configs.Base
+	workingDir := bcfg.WorkingDir
+	themesDir := bcfg.ThemesDir
+
+	cfg := configs.LoadingInfo.Cfg
+
+	var ignoreVendor glob.Glob
+	if s := conf.IgnoreVendorPaths; s != "" {
+		ignoreVendor, _ = hglob.GetGlob(hglob.NormalizePath(s))
+	}
+
+	ex := hexec.New(conf.Security)
+
+	hook := func(m *modules.ModulesConfig) error {
+		for _, tc := range m.ActiveModules {
+			if len(tc.ConfigFilenames()) > 0 {
+				if tc.Watch() {
+					l.ModulesConfigFiles = append(l.ModulesConfigFiles, tc.ConfigFilenames()...)
+				}
+
+				// Merge in the theme config using the configured
+				// merge strategy.
+				cfg.Merge("", tc.Cfg().Get(""))
+
+			}
+		}
+
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	modulesClient := modules.NewClient(modules.ClientConfig{
+		Fs:                 l.Fs,
+		Logger:             l.Logger,
+		Exec:               ex,
+		HookBeforeFinalize: hook,
+		WorkingDir:         workingDir,
+		ThemesDir:          themesDir,
+		Environment:        l.Environment,
+		CacheDir:           conf.Caches.CacheDirModules(),
+		ModuleConfig:       conf.Module,
+		IgnoreVendor:       ignoreVendor,
+	})
+
+	moduleConfig, err := modulesClient.Collect()
+
+	// We want to watch these for changes and trigger rebuild on version
+	// changes etc.
+	if moduleConfig.GoModulesFilename != "" {
+		l.ModulesConfigFiles = append(l.ModulesConfigFiles, moduleConfig.GoModulesFilename)
+	}
+
+	if moduleConfig.GoWorkspaceFilename != "" {
+		l.ModulesConfigFiles = append(l.ModulesConfigFiles, moduleConfig.GoWorkspaceFilename)
+	}
+
+	return moduleConfig, modulesClient, err
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) loadConfig(configName string) (string, error) {
+	baseDir := l.BaseConfig.WorkingDir
+	var baseFilename string
+	if filepath.IsAbs(configName) {
+		baseFilename = configName
+	} else {
+		baseFilename = filepath.Join(baseDir, configName)
+	}
+
+	var filename string
+	if paths.ExtNoDelimiter(configName) != "" {
+		exists, _ := helpers.Exists(baseFilename, l.Fs)
+		if exists {
+			filename = baseFilename
+		}
+	} else {
+		for _, ext := range config.ValidConfigFileExtensions {
+			filenameToCheck := baseFilename + "." + ext
+			exists, _ := helpers.Exists(filenameToCheck, l.Fs)
+			if exists {
+				filename = filenameToCheck
+				break
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	if filename == "" {
+		return "", ErrNoConfigFile
+	}
+
+	m, err := config.FromFileToMap(l.Fs, filename)
+	if err != nil {
+		return filename, err
+	}
+
+	// Set overwrites keys of the same name, recursively.
+	l.cfg.Set("", m)
+
+	if err := l.normalizeCfg(l.cfg); err != nil {
+		return filename, err
+	}
+
+	if err := l.cleanExternalConfig(l.cfg); err != nil {
+		return filename, err
+	}
+
+	return filename, nil
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) deleteMergeStrategies() {
+	l.cfg.WalkParams(func(params ...maps.KeyParams) bool {
+		params[len(params)-1].Params.DeleteMergeStrategy()
+		return false
+	})
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) loadModulesConfig() (modules.Config, error) {
+	modConfig, err := modules.DecodeConfig(l.cfg)
+	if err != nil {
+		return modules.Config{}, err
+	}
+
+	return modConfig, nil
+}
+
+func (l configLoader) wrapFileError(err error, filename string) error {
+	fe := herrors.UnwrapFileError(err)
+	if fe != nil {
+		pos := fe.Position()
+		pos.Filename = filename
+		fe.UpdatePosition(pos)
+		return err
+	}
+	return herrors.NewFileErrorFromFile(err, filename, l.Fs, nil)
+}
diff --git a/config/allconfig/load_test.go b/config/allconfig/load_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..153a59c44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/allconfig/load_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package allconfig
+
+import (
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+)
+
+func BenchmarkLoad(b *testing.B) {
+	tempDir := b.TempDir()
+	configFilename := filepath.Join(tempDir, "hugo.toml")
+	config := `
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+defaultContentLanguage = 'en'
+
+[module]
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = 'content/en'
+target = 'content/en'
+lang = 'en'
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = 'content/nn'
+target = 'content/nn'
+lang = 'nn'
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = 'content/no'
+target = 'content/no'
+lang = 'no'
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = 'content/sv'
+target = 'content/sv'
+lang = 'sv'
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = 'layouts'
+target = 'layouts'
+
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+title = "English"
+weight = 1
+[languages.nn]
+title = "Nynorsk"
+weight = 2
+[languages.no]
+title = "Norsk"
+weight = 3
+[languages.sv]
+title = "Svenska"
+weight = 4
+`
+	if err := os.WriteFile(configFilename, []byte(config), 0666); err != nil {
+		b.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	d := ConfigSourceDescriptor{
+		Fs:       afero.NewOsFs(),
+		Filename: configFilename,
+	}
+
+	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+		_, err := LoadConfig(d)
+		if err != nil {
+			b.Fatal(err)
+		}
+	}
+}
diff --git a/config/commonConfig.go b/config/commonConfig.go
index 31705841e..8cac2e1e5 100644
--- a/config/commonConfig.go
+++ b/config/commonConfig.go
@@ -17,7 +17,6 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"sort"
 	"strings"
-	"sync"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
 
@@ -25,16 +24,66 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 	"github.com/spf13/cast"
-	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 )
 
-var DefaultBuild = Build{
+type BaseConfig struct {
+	WorkingDir string
+	CacheDir   string
+	ThemesDir  string
+	PublishDir string
+}
+
+type CommonDirs struct {
+	// The directory where Hugo will look for themes.
+	ThemesDir string
+
+	// Where to put the generated files.
+	PublishDir string
+
+	// The directory to put the generated resources files. This directory should in most situations be considered temporary
+	// and not be committed to version control. But there may be cached content in here that you want to keep,
+	// e.g. resources/_gen/images for performance reasons or CSS built from SASS when your CI server doesn't have the full setup.
+	ResourceDir string
+
+	// The project root directory.
+	WorkingDir string
+
+	// The root directory for all cache files.
+	CacheDir string
+
+	// The content source directory.
+	// Deprecated: Use module mounts.
+	ContentDir string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mounts.
+	// The data source directory.
+	DataDir string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mounts.
+	// The layout source directory.
+	LayoutDir string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mounts.
+	// The i18n source directory.
+	I18nDir string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mounts.
+	// The archetypes source directory.
+	ArcheTypeDir string
+	// Deprecated: Use module mounts.
+	// The assets source directory.
+	AssetDir string
+}
+
+type LoadConfigResult struct {
+	Cfg         Provider
+	ConfigFiles []string
+	BaseConfig  BaseConfig
+}
+
+var DefaultBuild = BuildConfig{
 	UseResourceCacheWhen: "fallback",
 	WriteStats:           false,
 }
 
-// Build holds some build related configuration.
-type Build struct {
+// BuildConfig holds some build related configuration.
+type BuildConfig struct {
 	UseResourceCacheWhen string // never, fallback, always. Default is fallback
 
 	// When enabled, will collect and write a hugo_stats.json with some build
@@ -46,7 +95,7 @@ type Build struct {
 	NoJSConfigInAssets bool
 }
 
-func (b Build) UseResourceCache(err error) bool {
+func (b BuildConfig) UseResourceCache(err error) bool {
 	if b.UseResourceCacheWhen == "never" {
 		return false
 	}
@@ -58,7 +107,7 @@ func (b Build) UseResourceCache(err error) bool {
 	return true
 }
 
-func DecodeBuild(cfg Provider) Build {
+func DecodeBuildConfig(cfg Provider) BuildConfig {
 	m := cfg.GetStringMap("build")
 	b := DefaultBuild
 	if m == nil {
@@ -79,28 +128,19 @@ func DecodeBuild(cfg Provider) Build {
 	return b
 }
 
-// Sitemap configures the sitemap to be generated.
-type Sitemap struct {
+// SitemapConfig configures the sitemap to be generated.
+type SitemapConfig struct {
+	// The page change frequency.
 	ChangeFreq string
-	Priority   float64
-	Filename   string
-}
-
-func DecodeSitemap(prototype Sitemap, input map[string]any) Sitemap {
-	for key, value := range input {
-		switch key {
-		case "changefreq":
-			prototype.ChangeFreq = cast.ToString(value)
-		case "priority":
-			prototype.Priority = cast.ToFloat64(value)
-		case "filename":
-			prototype.Filename = cast.ToString(value)
-		default:
-			jww.WARN.Printf("Unknown Sitemap field: %s\n", key)
-		}
-	}
+	// The priority of the page.
+	Priority float64
+	// The sitemap filename.
+	Filename string
+}
 
-	return prototype
+func DecodeSitemap(prototype SitemapConfig, input map[string]any) (SitemapConfig, error) {
+	err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(input, &prototype)
+	return prototype, err
 }
 
 // Config for the dev server.
@@ -108,25 +148,24 @@ type Server struct {
 	Headers   []Headers
 	Redirects []Redirect
 
-	compiledInit      sync.Once
 	compiledHeaders   []glob.Glob
 	compiledRedirects []glob.Glob
 }
 
-func (s *Server) init() {
-	s.compiledInit.Do(func() {
-		for _, h := range s.Headers {
-			s.compiledHeaders = append(s.compiledHeaders, glob.MustCompile(h.For))
-		}
-		for _, r := range s.Redirects {
-			s.compiledRedirects = append(s.compiledRedirects, glob.MustCompile(r.From))
-		}
-	})
+func (s *Server) CompileConfig() error {
+	if s.compiledHeaders != nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	for _, h := range s.Headers {
+		s.compiledHeaders = append(s.compiledHeaders, glob.MustCompile(h.For))
+	}
+	for _, r := range s.Redirects {
+		s.compiledRedirects = append(s.compiledRedirects, glob.MustCompile(r.From))
+	}
+	return nil
 }
 
 func (s *Server) MatchHeaders(pattern string) []types.KeyValueStr {
-	s.init()
-
 	if s.compiledHeaders == nil {
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -150,8 +189,6 @@ func (s *Server) MatchHeaders(pattern string) []types.KeyValueStr {
 }
 
 func (s *Server) MatchRedirect(pattern string) Redirect {
-	s.init()
-
 	if s.compiledRedirects == nil {
 		return Redirect{}
 	}
@@ -195,14 +232,10 @@ func (r Redirect) IsZero() bool {
 	return r.From == ""
 }
 
-func DecodeServer(cfg Provider) (*Server, error) {
-	m := cfg.GetStringMap("server")
+func DecodeServer(cfg Provider) (Server, error) {
 	s := &Server{}
-	if m == nil {
-		return s, nil
-	}
 
-	_ = mapstructure.WeakDecode(m, s)
+	_ = mapstructure.WeakDecode(cfg.GetStringMap("server"), s)
 
 	for i, redir := range s.Redirects {
 		// Get it in line with the Hugo server for OK responses.
@@ -213,7 +246,7 @@ func DecodeServer(cfg Provider) (*Server, error) {
 				// There are some tricky infinite loop situations when dealing
 				// when the target does not have a trailing slash.
 				// This can certainly be handled better, but not time for that now.
-				return nil, fmt.Errorf("unsupported redirect to value %q in server config; currently this must be either a remote destination or a local folder, e.g. \"/blog/\" or \"/blog/index.html\"", redir.To)
+				return Server{}, fmt.Errorf("unsupported redirect to value %q in server config; currently this must be either a remote destination or a local folder, e.g. \"/blog/\" or \"/blog/index.html\"", redir.To)
 			}
 		}
 		s.Redirects[i] = redir
@@ -231,5 +264,5 @@ func DecodeServer(cfg Provider) (*Server, error) {
 
 	}
 
-	return s, nil
+	return *s, nil
 }
diff --git a/config/commonConfig_test.go b/config/commonConfig_test.go
index 4ff2e8ed5..f05664448 100644
--- a/config/commonConfig_test.go
+++ b/config/commonConfig_test.go
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ func TestBuild(t *testing.T) {
 		"useResourceCacheWhen": "always",
 	})
 
-	b := DecodeBuild(v)
+	b := DecodeBuildConfig(v)
 
 	c.Assert(b.UseResourceCacheWhen, qt.Equals, "always")
 
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ func TestBuild(t *testing.T) {
 		"useResourceCacheWhen": "foo",
 	})
 
-	b = DecodeBuild(v)
+	b = DecodeBuildConfig(v)
 
 	c.Assert(b.UseResourceCacheWhen, qt.Equals, "fallback")
 
@@ -91,6 +91,7 @@ status = 301
 
 	s, err := DecodeServer(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(s.CompileConfig(), qt.IsNil)
 
 	c.Assert(s.MatchHeaders("/foo.jpg"), qt.DeepEquals, []types.KeyValueStr{
 		{Key: "X-Content-Type-Options", Value: "nosniff"},
diff --git a/config/compositeConfig.go b/config/compositeConfig.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 395b2d585..000000000
--- a/config/compositeConfig.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,117 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2021 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package config
-
-import (
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-)
-
-// NewCompositeConfig creates a new composite Provider with a read-only base
-// and a writeable layer.
-func NewCompositeConfig(base, layer Provider) Provider {
-	return &compositeConfig{
-		base:  base,
-		layer: layer,
-	}
-}
-
-// compositeConfig contains a read only config base with
-// a possibly writeable config layer on top.
-type compositeConfig struct {
-	base  Provider
-	layer Provider
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) GetBool(key string) bool {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.GetBool(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.GetBool(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) GetInt(key string) int {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.GetInt(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.GetInt(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) Merge(key string, value any) {
-	c.layer.Merge(key, value)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) GetParams(key string) maps.Params {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.GetParams(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.GetParams(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) GetStringMap(key string) map[string]any {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.GetStringMap(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.GetStringMap(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) GetStringMapString(key string) map[string]string {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.GetStringMapString(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.GetStringMapString(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) GetStringSlice(key string) []string {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.GetStringSlice(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.GetStringSlice(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) Get(key string) any {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.Get(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.Get(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) IsSet(key string) bool {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return true
-	}
-	return c.base.IsSet(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) GetString(key string) string {
-	if c.layer.IsSet(key) {
-		return c.layer.GetString(key)
-	}
-	return c.base.GetString(key)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) Set(key string, value any) {
-	c.layer.Set(key, value)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) SetDefaults(params maps.Params) {
-	c.layer.SetDefaults(params)
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) WalkParams(walkFn func(params ...KeyParams) bool) {
-	panic("not supported")
-}
-
-func (c *compositeConfig) SetDefaultMergeStrategy() {
-	panic("not supported")
-}
diff --git a/config/configLoader.go b/config/configLoader.go
index 95594fc62..6e520b9cc 100644
--- a/config/configLoader.go
+++ b/config/configLoader.go
@@ -57,6 +57,14 @@ func IsValidConfigFilename(filename string) bool {
 	return validConfigFileExtensionsMap[ext]
 }
 
+func FromTOMLConfigString(config string) Provider {
+	cfg, err := FromConfigString(config, "toml")
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	return cfg
+}
+
 // FromConfigString creates a config from the given YAML, JSON or TOML config. This is useful in tests.
 func FromConfigString(config, configType string) (Provider, error) {
 	m, err := readConfig(metadecoders.FormatFromString(configType), []byte(config))
diff --git a/config/configProvider.go b/config/configProvider.go
index 01a2e8c54..ac00c7476 100644
--- a/config/configProvider.go
+++ b/config/configProvider.go
@@ -14,10 +14,58 @@
 package config
 
 import (
+	"time"
+
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/urls"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 )
 
+// AllProvider is a sub set of all config settings.
+type AllProvider interface {
+	Language() *langs.Language
+	Languages() langs.Languages
+	LanguagesDefaultFirst() langs.Languages
+	BaseURL() urls.BaseURL
+	BaseURLLiveReload() urls.BaseURL
+	Environment() string
+	IsMultihost() bool
+	IsMultiLingual() bool
+	NoBuildLock() bool
+	BaseConfig() BaseConfig
+	Dirs() CommonDirs
+	Quiet() bool
+	DirsBase() CommonDirs
+	GetConfigSection(string) any
+	GetConfig() any
+	CanonifyURLs() bool
+	DisablePathToLower() bool
+	RemovePathAccents() bool
+	IsUglyURLs(section string) bool
+	DefaultContentLanguage() string
+	DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir() bool
+	IsLangDisabled(string) bool
+	SummaryLength() int
+	Paginate() int
+	PaginatePath() string
+	BuildExpired() bool
+	BuildFuture() bool
+	BuildDrafts() bool
+	Running() bool
+	PrintUnusedTemplates() bool
+	EnableMissingTranslationPlaceholders() bool
+	TemplateMetrics() bool
+	TemplateMetricsHints() bool
+	LogI18nWarnings() bool
+	CreateTitle(s string) string
+	IgnoreFile(s string) bool
+	NewContentEditor() string
+	Timeout() time.Duration
+	StaticDirs() []string
+	IgnoredErrors() map[string]bool
+}
+
 // Provider provides the configuration settings for Hugo.
 type Provider interface {
 	GetString(key string) string
@@ -29,10 +77,11 @@ type Provider interface {
 	GetStringSlice(key string) []string
 	Get(key string) any
 	Set(key string, value any)
+	Keys() []string
 	Merge(key string, value any)
 	SetDefaults(params maps.Params)
 	SetDefaultMergeStrategy()
-	WalkParams(walkFn func(params ...KeyParams) bool)
+	WalkParams(walkFn func(params ...maps.KeyParams) bool)
 	IsSet(key string) bool
 }
 
@@ -44,22 +93,6 @@ func GetStringSlicePreserveString(cfg Provider, key string) []string {
 	return types.ToStringSlicePreserveString(sd)
 }
 
-// SetBaseTestDefaults provides some common config defaults used in tests.
-func SetBaseTestDefaults(cfg Provider) Provider {
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "baseURL", "https://example.org")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "resourceDir", "resources")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "contentDir", "content")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "dataDir", "data")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "i18nDir", "i18n")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "layoutDir", "layouts")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "assetDir", "assets")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "archetypeDir", "archetypes")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "publishDir", "public")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "workingDir", "")
-	setIfNotSet(cfg, "defaultContentLanguage", "en")
-	return cfg
-}
-
 func setIfNotSet(cfg Provider, key string, value any) {
 	if !cfg.IsSet(key) {
 		cfg.Set(key, value)
diff --git a/config/defaultConfigProvider.go b/config/defaultConfigProvider.go
index 822f421fa..e8a08e281 100644
--- a/config/defaultConfigProvider.go
+++ b/config/defaultConfigProvider.go
@@ -19,6 +19,8 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 
+	xmaps "golang.org/x/exp/maps"
+
 	"github.com/spf13/cast"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
@@ -75,11 +77,6 @@ func NewFrom(params maps.Params) Provider {
 	}
 }
 
-// NewWithTestDefaults is used in tests only.
-func NewWithTestDefaults() Provider {
-	return SetBaseTestDefaults(New())
-}
-
 // defaultConfigProvider is a Provider backed by a map where all keys are lower case.
 // All methods are thread safe.
 type defaultConfigProvider struct {
@@ -160,9 +157,9 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Set(k string, v any) {
 	k = strings.ToLower(k)
 
 	if k == "" {
-		if p, ok := maps.ToParamsAndPrepare(v); ok {
+		if p, err := maps.ToParamsAndPrepare(v); err == nil {
 			// Set the values directly in root.
-			c.root.Set(p)
+			maps.SetParams(c.root, p)
 		} else {
 			c.root[k] = v
 		}
@@ -184,7 +181,7 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Set(k string, v any) {
 	if existing, found := m[key]; found {
 		if p1, ok := existing.(maps.Params); ok {
 			if p2, ok := v.(maps.Params); ok {
-				p1.Set(p2)
+				maps.SetParams(p1, p2)
 				return
 			}
 		}
@@ -208,12 +205,6 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Merge(k string, v any) {
 	defer c.mu.Unlock()
 	k = strings.ToLower(k)
 
-	const (
-		languagesKey = "languages"
-		paramsKey    = "params"
-		menusKey     = "menus"
-	)
-
 	if k == "" {
 		rs, f := c.root.GetMergeStrategy()
 		if f && rs == maps.ParamsMergeStrategyNone {
@@ -222,7 +213,7 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Merge(k string, v any) {
 			return
 		}
 
-		if p, ok := maps.ToParamsAndPrepare(v); ok {
+		if p, err := maps.ToParamsAndPrepare(v); err == nil {
 			// As there may be keys in p not in root, we need to handle
 			// those as a special case.
 			var keysToDelete []string
@@ -230,49 +221,14 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Merge(k string, v any) {
 				if pp, ok := vv.(maps.Params); ok {
 					if pppi, ok := c.root[kk]; ok {
 						ppp := pppi.(maps.Params)
-						if kk == languagesKey {
-							// Languages is currently a special case.
-							// We may have languages with menus or params in the
-							// right map that is not present in the left map.
-							// With the default merge strategy those items will not
-							// be passed over.
-							var hasParams, hasMenus bool
-							for _, rv := range pp {
-								if lkp, ok := rv.(maps.Params); ok {
-									_, hasMenus = lkp[menusKey]
-									_, hasParams = lkp[paramsKey]
-								}
-							}
-
-							if hasMenus || hasParams {
-								for _, lv := range ppp {
-									if lkp, ok := lv.(maps.Params); ok {
-										if hasMenus {
-											if _, ok := lkp[menusKey]; !ok {
-												p := maps.Params{}
-												p.SetDefaultMergeStrategy(maps.ParamsMergeStrategyShallow)
-												lkp[menusKey] = p
-											}
-										}
-										if hasParams {
-											if _, ok := lkp[paramsKey]; !ok {
-												p := maps.Params{}
-												p.SetDefaultMergeStrategy(maps.ParamsMergeStrategyShallow)
-												lkp[paramsKey] = p
-											}
-										}
-									}
-								}
-							}
-						}
-						ppp.Merge(pp)
+						maps.MergeParamsWithStrategy("", ppp, pp)
 					} else {
 						// We need to use the default merge strategy for
 						// this key.
 						np := make(maps.Params)
-						strategy := c.determineMergeStrategy(KeyParams{Key: "", Params: c.root}, KeyParams{Key: kk, Params: np})
-						np.SetDefaultMergeStrategy(strategy)
-						np.Merge(pp)
+						strategy := c.determineMergeStrategy(maps.KeyParams{Key: "", Params: c.root}, maps.KeyParams{Key: kk, Params: np})
+						np.SetMergeStrategy(strategy)
+						maps.MergeParamsWithStrategy("", np, pp)
 						c.root[kk] = np
 						if np.IsZero() {
 							// Just keep it until merge is done.
@@ -282,7 +238,7 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Merge(k string, v any) {
 				}
 			}
 			// Merge the rest.
-			c.root.MergeRoot(p)
+			maps.MergeParams(c.root, p)
 			for _, k := range keysToDelete {
 				delete(c.root, k)
 			}
@@ -307,7 +263,7 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Merge(k string, v any) {
 	if existing, found := m[key]; found {
 		if p1, ok := existing.(maps.Params); ok {
 			if p2, ok := v.(maps.Params); ok {
-				p1.Merge(p2)
+				maps.MergeParamsWithStrategy("", p1, p2)
 			}
 		}
 	} else {
@@ -315,9 +271,15 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Merge(k string, v any) {
 	}
 }
 
-func (c *defaultConfigProvider) WalkParams(walkFn func(params ...KeyParams) bool) {
-	var walk func(params ...KeyParams)
-	walk = func(params ...KeyParams) {
+func (c *defaultConfigProvider) Keys() []string {
+	c.mu.RLock()
+	defer c.mu.RUnlock()
+	return xmaps.Keys(c.root)
+}
+
+func (c *defaultConfigProvider) WalkParams(walkFn func(params ...maps.KeyParams) bool) {
+	var walk func(params ...maps.KeyParams)
+	walk = func(params ...maps.KeyParams) {
 		if walkFn(params...) {
 			return
 		}
@@ -325,17 +287,17 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) WalkParams(walkFn func(params ...KeyParams) bool
 		i := len(params)
 		for k, v := range p1.Params {
 			if p2, ok := v.(maps.Params); ok {
-				paramsplus1 := make([]KeyParams, i+1)
+				paramsplus1 := make([]maps.KeyParams, i+1)
 				copy(paramsplus1, params)
-				paramsplus1[i] = KeyParams{Key: k, Params: p2}
+				paramsplus1[i] = maps.KeyParams{Key: k, Params: p2}
 				walk(paramsplus1...)
 			}
 		}
 	}
-	walk(KeyParams{Key: "", Params: c.root})
+	walk(maps.KeyParams{Key: "", Params: c.root})
 }
 
-func (c *defaultConfigProvider) determineMergeStrategy(params ...KeyParams) maps.ParamsMergeStrategy {
+func (c *defaultConfigProvider) determineMergeStrategy(params ...maps.KeyParams) maps.ParamsMergeStrategy {
 	if len(params) == 0 {
 		return maps.ParamsMergeStrategyNone
 	}
@@ -391,13 +353,8 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) determineMergeStrategy(params ...KeyParams) maps
 	return strategy
 }
 
-type KeyParams struct {
-	Key    string
-	Params maps.Params
-}
-
 func (c *defaultConfigProvider) SetDefaultMergeStrategy() {
-	c.WalkParams(func(params ...KeyParams) bool {
+	c.WalkParams(func(params ...maps.KeyParams) bool {
 		if len(params) == 0 {
 			return false
 		}
@@ -409,7 +366,7 @@ func (c *defaultConfigProvider) SetDefaultMergeStrategy() {
 		}
 		strategy := c.determineMergeStrategy(params...)
 		if strategy != "" {
-			p.SetDefaultMergeStrategy(strategy)
+			p.SetMergeStrategy(strategy)
 		}
 		return false
 	})
diff --git a/config/namespace.go b/config/namespace.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..3ecd01014
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/namespace.go
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package config
+
+import (
+	"encoding/json"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
+)
+
+func DecodeNamespace[S, C any](configSource any, buildConfig func(any) (C, any, error)) (*ConfigNamespace[S, C], error) {
+
+	// Calculate the hash of the input (not including any defaults applied later).
+	// This allows us to introduce new config options without breaking the hash.
+	h := identity.HashString(configSource)
+
+	// Build the config
+	c, ext, err := buildConfig(configSource)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	if ext == nil {
+		ext = configSource
+	}
+
+	if ext == nil {
+		panic("ext is nil")
+	}
+
+	ns := &ConfigNamespace[S, C]{
+		SourceStructure: ext,
+		SourceHash:      h,
+		Config:          c,
+	}
+
+	return ns, nil
+}
+
+// ConfigNamespace holds a Hugo configuration namespace.
+// The construct looks a little odd, but it's built to make the configuration elements
+// both self-documenting and contained in a common structure.
+type ConfigNamespace[S, C any] struct {
+	// SourceStructure represents the source configuration with any defaults applied.
+	// This is used for documentation and printing of the configuration setup to the user.
+	SourceStructure any
+
+	// SourceHash is a hash of the source configuration before any defaults gets applied.
+	SourceHash string
+
+	// Config is the final configuration as used by Hugo.
+	Config C
+}
+
+// MarshalJSON marshals the source structure.
+func (ns *ConfigNamespace[S, C]) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
+	return json.Marshal(ns.SourceStructure)
+}
+
+// Signature returns the signature of the source structure.
+// Note that this is for documentation purposes only and SourceStructure may not always be cast to S (it's usually just a map).
+func (ns *ConfigNamespace[S, C]) Signature() S {
+	var s S
+	return s
+}
diff --git a/config/namespace_test.go b/config/namespace_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..008237c13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/namespace_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package config
+
+import (
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+
+	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
+)
+
+func TestNamespace(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+	c.Assert(true, qt.Equals, true)
+
+	//ns, err := config.DecodeNamespace[map[string]DocsMediaTypeConfig](in, defaultMediaTypesConfig, buildConfig)
+
+	ns, err := DecodeNamespace[[]*tstNsExt](
+		map[string]interface{}{"foo": "bar"},
+		func(v any) (*tstNsExt, any, error) {
+			t := &tstNsExt{}
+			m, err := maps.ToStringMapE(v)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, nil, err
+			}
+			return t, nil, mapstructure.WeakDecode(m, t)
+		},
+	)
+
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(ns, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+	c.Assert(ns.SourceStructure, qt.DeepEquals, map[string]interface{}{"foo": "bar"})
+	c.Assert(ns.SourceHash, qt.Equals, "14368731254619220105")
+	c.Assert(ns.Config, qt.DeepEquals, &tstNsExt{Foo: "bar"})
+	c.Assert(ns.Signature(), qt.DeepEquals, []*tstNsExt(nil))
+
+}
+
+type (
+	tstNsExt struct {
+		Foo string
+	}
+	tstNsInt struct {
+		Foo string
+	}
+)
+
+func (t *tstNsExt) Init() error {
+	t.Foo = strings.ToUpper(t.Foo)
+	return nil
+}
+func (t *tstNsInt) Compile(ext *tstNsExt) error {
+	t.Foo = ext.Foo + " qux"
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/config/security/securityConfig.go b/config/security/securityConfig.go
index 4b0e07086..66e89fb97 100644
--- a/config/security/securityConfig.go
+++ b/config/security/securityConfig.go
@@ -54,14 +54,16 @@ var DefaultConfig = Config{
 }
 
 // Config is the top level security config.
+// <docsmeta>{"name": "security", "description": "This section holds the top level security config.", "newIn": "0.91.0" }</docsmeta>
 type Config struct {
-	// Restricts access to os.Exec.
+	// Restricts access to os.Exec....
+	// <docsmeta>{ "newIn": "0.91.0" }</docsmeta>
 	Exec Exec `json:"exec"`
 
 	// Restricts access to certain template funcs.
 	Funcs Funcs `json:"funcs"`
 
-	// Restricts access to resources.Get, getJSON, getCSV.
+	// Restricts access to resources.GetRemote, getJSON, getCSV.
 	HTTP HTTP `json:"http"`
 
 	// Allow inline shortcodes
diff --git a/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go b/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go
index 826255e73..12b042a5a 100644
--- a/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go
+++ b/config/services/servicesConfig_test.go
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ disableInlineCSS = true
 func TestUseSettingsFromRootIfSet(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("disqusShortname", "root_short")
 	cfg.Set("googleAnalytics", "ga_root")
 
diff --git a/config/testconfig/testconfig.go b/config/testconfig/testconfig.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..4b47d82d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/testconfig/testconfig.go
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+// This package should only be used for testing.
+package testconfig
+
+import (
+	_ "unsafe"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	toml "github.com/pelletier/go-toml/v2"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+)
+
+func GetTestConfigs(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *allconfig.Configs {
+	if fs == nil {
+		fs = afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	}
+	if cfg == nil {
+		cfg = config.New()
+	}
+	// Make sure that the workingDir exists.
+	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
+	if workingDir != "" {
+		if err := fs.MkdirAll(workingDir, 0777); err != nil {
+			panic(err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	configs, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: fs, Flags: cfg})
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	return configs
+
+}
+
+func GetTestConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) config.AllProvider {
+	return GetTestConfigs(fs, cfg).GetFirstLanguageConfig()
+}
+
+func GetTestDeps(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider, beforeInit ...func(*deps.Deps)) *deps.Deps {
+	if fs == nil {
+		fs = afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	}
+	conf := GetTestConfig(fs, cfg)
+	d := &deps.Deps{
+		Conf: conf,
+		Fs:   hugofs.NewFrom(fs, conf.BaseConfig()),
+	}
+	for _, f := range beforeInit {
+		f(d)
+	}
+	if err := d.Init(); err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	return d
+}
+
+func GetTestConfigSectionFromStruct(section string, v any) config.AllProvider {
+	data, err := toml.Marshal(v)
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	p := maps.Params{
+		section: config.FromTOMLConfigString(string(data)).Get(""),
+	}
+	cfg := config.NewFrom(p)
+	return GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+}
diff --git a/create/content.go b/create/content.go
index f8629a778..55159c24c 100644
--- a/create/content.go
+++ b/create/content.go
@@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ func (b *contentBuilder) mapArcheTypeDir() error {
 }
 
 func (b *contentBuilder) openInEditorIfConfigured(filename string) error {
-	editor := b.h.Cfg.GetString("newContentEditor")
+	editor := b.h.Conf.NewContentEditor()
 	if editor == "" {
 		return nil
 	}
diff --git a/create/content_test.go b/create/content_test.go
index fdfee6e68..77c6ca6c9 100644
--- a/create/content_test.go
+++ b/create/content_test.go
@@ -21,6 +21,8 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 
@@ -80,7 +82,8 @@ func TestNewContentFromFile(t *testing.T) {
 			mm := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 			c.Assert(initFs(mm), qt.IsNil)
 			cfg, fs := newTestCfg(c, mm)
-			h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs})
+			conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs.Source, cfg)
+			h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Configs: conf, Fs: fs})
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 			err = create.NewContent(h, cas.kind, cas.path, false)
 
@@ -141,7 +144,8 @@ i18n: {{ T "hugo" }}
 	c.Assert(initFs(mm), qt.IsNil)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg(c, mm)
 
-	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs})
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs.Source, cfg)
+	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Configs: conf, Fs: fs})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(len(h.Sites), qt.Equals, 2)
 
@@ -183,7 +187,8 @@ site RegularPages: {{ len site.RegularPages  }}
 	c.Assert(initFs(mm), qt.IsNil)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg(c, mm)
 
-	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs})
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs.Source, cfg)
+	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Configs: conf, Fs: fs})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(len(h.Sites), qt.Equals, 2)
 
@@ -232,8 +237,8 @@ i18n: {{ T "hugo" }}
 
 	c.Assert(initFs(mm), qt.IsNil)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg(c, mm)
-
-	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs})
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs.Source, cfg)
+	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Configs: conf, Fs: fs})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(len(h.Sites), qt.Equals, 2)
 
@@ -264,7 +269,8 @@ func TestNewContentForce(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(initFs(mm), qt.IsNil)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg(c, mm)
 
-	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs})
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(fs.Source, cfg)
+	h, err := hugolib.NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Configs: conf, Fs: fs})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(len(h.Sites), qt.Equals, 2)
 
@@ -461,8 +467,8 @@ other = "Hugo Rokkar!"`), 0o755), qt.IsNil)
 
 	c.Assert(afero.WriteFile(mm, "config.toml", []byte(cfg), 0o755), qt.IsNil)
 
-	v, _, err := hugolib.LoadConfig(hugolib.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: mm, Filename: "config.toml"})
+	res, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: mm, Filename: "config.toml"})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	return v, hugofs.NewFrom(mm, v)
+	return res.LoadingInfo.Cfg, hugofs.NewFrom(mm, res.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig)
 }
diff --git a/deploy/deploy.go b/deploy/deploy.go
index 2d3d3b552..db88996a9 100644
--- a/deploy/deploy.go
+++ b/deploy/deploy.go
@@ -55,17 +55,12 @@ type Deployer struct {
 	localFs afero.Fs
 	bucket  *blob.Bucket
 
-	target        *target          // the target to deploy to
-	matchers      []*matcher       // matchers to apply to uploaded files
-	mediaTypes    media.Types      // Hugo's MediaType to guess ContentType
-	ordering      []*regexp.Regexp // orders uploads
-	quiet         bool             // true reduces STDOUT
-	confirm       bool             // true enables confirmation before making changes
-	dryRun        bool             // true skips conformations and prints changes instead of applying them
-	force         bool             // true forces upload of all files
-	invalidateCDN bool             // true enables invalidate CDN cache (if possible)
-	maxDeletes    int              // caps the # of files to delete; -1 to disable
-	workers       int              // The number of workers to transfer files
+	mediaTypes media.Types // Hugo's MediaType to guess ContentType
+	quiet      bool        // true reduces STDOUT
+
+	cfg DeployConfig
+
+	target *Target // the target to deploy to
 
 	// For tests...
 	summary deploySummary // summary of latest Deploy results
@@ -78,21 +73,18 @@ type deploySummary struct {
 const metaMD5Hash = "md5chksum" // the meta key to store md5hash in
 
 // New constructs a new *Deployer.
-func New(cfg config.Provider, localFs afero.Fs) (*Deployer, error) {
-	targetName := cfg.GetString("target")
+func New(cfg config.AllProvider, localFs afero.Fs) (*Deployer, error) {
 
-	// Load the [deployment] section of the config.
-	dcfg, err := decodeConfig(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
+	dcfg := cfg.GetConfigSection(deploymentConfigKey).(DeployConfig)
+	targetName := dcfg.Target
 
 	if len(dcfg.Targets) == 0 {
 		return nil, errors.New("no deployment targets found")
 	}
+	mediaTypes := cfg.GetConfigSection("mediaTypes").(media.Types)
 
 	// Find the target to deploy to.
-	var tgt *target
+	var tgt *Target
 	if targetName == "" {
 		// Default to the first target.
 		tgt = dcfg.Targets[0]
@@ -108,18 +100,11 @@ func New(cfg config.Provider, localFs afero.Fs) (*Deployer, error) {
 	}
 
 	return &Deployer{
-		localFs:       localFs,
-		target:        tgt,
-		matchers:      dcfg.Matchers,
-		ordering:      dcfg.ordering,
-		mediaTypes:    dcfg.mediaTypes,
-		quiet:         cfg.GetBool("quiet"),
-		confirm:       cfg.GetBool("confirm"),
-		dryRun:        cfg.GetBool("dryRun"),
-		force:         cfg.GetBool("force"),
-		invalidateCDN: cfg.GetBool("invalidateCDN"),
-		maxDeletes:    cfg.GetInt("maxDeletes"),
-		workers:       cfg.GetInt("workers"),
+		localFs:    localFs,
+		target:     tgt,
+		quiet:      cfg.BuildExpired(),
+		mediaTypes: mediaTypes,
+		cfg:        dcfg,
 	}, nil
 }
 
@@ -138,12 +123,16 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 		return err
 	}
 
+	if d.cfg.Workers <= 0 {
+		d.cfg.Workers = 10
+	}
+
 	// Load local files from the source directory.
 	var include, exclude glob.Glob
 	if d.target != nil {
 		include, exclude = d.target.includeGlob, d.target.excludeGlob
 	}
-	local, err := walkLocal(d.localFs, d.matchers, include, exclude, d.mediaTypes)
+	local, err := walkLocal(d.localFs, d.cfg.Matchers, include, exclude, d.mediaTypes)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -159,7 +148,7 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 	d.summary.NumRemote = len(remote)
 
 	// Diff local vs remote to see what changes need to be applied.
-	uploads, deletes := findDiffs(local, remote, d.force)
+	uploads, deletes := findDiffs(local, remote, d.cfg.Force)
 	d.summary.NumUploads = len(uploads)
 	d.summary.NumDeletes = len(deletes)
 	if len(uploads)+len(deletes) == 0 {
@@ -173,7 +162,7 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 	}
 
 	// Ask for confirmation before proceeding.
-	if d.confirm && !d.dryRun {
+	if d.cfg.Confirm && !d.cfg.DryRun {
 		fmt.Printf("Continue? (Y/n) ")
 		var confirm string
 		if _, err := fmt.Scanln(&confirm); err != nil {
@@ -186,15 +175,9 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 
 	// Order the uploads. They are organized in groups; all uploads in a group
 	// must be complete before moving on to the next group.
-	uploadGroups := applyOrdering(d.ordering, uploads)
+	uploadGroups := applyOrdering(d.cfg.ordering, uploads)
 
-	// Apply the changes in parallel, using an inverted worker
-	// pool (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zXAHh5tJqQ&t=26m58s).
-	// sem prevents more than nParallel concurrent goroutines.
-	if d.workers <= 0 {
-		d.workers = 10
-	}
-	nParallel := d.workers
+	nParallel := d.cfg.Workers
 	var errs []error
 	var errMu sync.Mutex // protects errs
 
@@ -207,7 +190,7 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 		// Within the group, apply uploads in parallel.
 		sem := make(chan struct{}, nParallel)
 		for _, upload := range uploads {
-			if d.dryRun {
+			if d.cfg.DryRun {
 				if !d.quiet {
 					jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("[DRY RUN] Would upload: %v\n", upload)
 				}
@@ -230,15 +213,15 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 		}
 	}
 
-	if d.maxDeletes != -1 && len(deletes) > d.maxDeletes {
-		jww.WARN.Printf("Skipping %d deletes because it is more than --maxDeletes (%d). If this is expected, set --maxDeletes to a larger number, or -1 to disable this check.\n", len(deletes), d.maxDeletes)
+	if d.cfg.MaxDeletes != -1 && len(deletes) > d.cfg.MaxDeletes {
+		jww.WARN.Printf("Skipping %d deletes because it is more than --maxDeletes (%d). If this is expected, set --maxDeletes to a larger number, or -1 to disable this check.\n", len(deletes), d.cfg.MaxDeletes)
 		d.summary.NumDeletes = 0
 	} else {
 		// Apply deletes in parallel.
 		sort.Slice(deletes, func(i, j int) bool { return deletes[i] < deletes[j] })
 		sem := make(chan struct{}, nParallel)
 		for _, del := range deletes {
-			if d.dryRun {
+			if d.cfg.DryRun {
 				if !d.quiet {
 					jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("[DRY RUN] Would delete %s\n", del)
 				}
@@ -264,6 +247,7 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 			sem <- struct{}{}
 		}
 	}
+
 	if len(errs) > 0 {
 		if !d.quiet {
 			jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("Encountered %d errors.\n", len(errs))
@@ -274,9 +258,9 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 		jww.FEEDBACK.Println("Success!")
 	}
 
-	if d.invalidateCDN {
+	if d.cfg.InvalidateCDN {
 		if d.target.CloudFrontDistributionID != "" {
-			if d.dryRun {
+			if d.cfg.DryRun {
 				if !d.quiet {
 					jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("[DRY RUN] Would invalidate CloudFront CDN with ID %s\n", d.target.CloudFrontDistributionID)
 				}
@@ -289,7 +273,7 @@ func (d *Deployer) Deploy(ctx context.Context) error {
 			}
 		}
 		if d.target.GoogleCloudCDNOrigin != "" {
-			if d.dryRun {
+			if d.cfg.DryRun {
 				if !d.quiet {
 					jww.FEEDBACK.Printf("[DRY RUN] Would invalidate Google Cloud CDN with origin %s\n", d.target.GoogleCloudCDNOrigin)
 				}
@@ -356,14 +340,14 @@ type localFile struct {
 	UploadSize int64
 
 	fs         afero.Fs
-	matcher    *matcher
+	matcher    *Matcher
 	md5        []byte       // cache
 	gzipped    bytes.Buffer // cached of gzipped contents if gzipping
 	mediaTypes media.Types
 }
 
 // newLocalFile initializes a *localFile.
-func newLocalFile(fs afero.Fs, nativePath, slashpath string, m *matcher, mt media.Types) (*localFile, error) {
+func newLocalFile(fs afero.Fs, nativePath, slashpath string, m *Matcher, mt media.Types) (*localFile, error) {
 	f, err := fs.Open(nativePath)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -448,7 +432,7 @@ func (lf *localFile) ContentType() string {
 
 	ext := filepath.Ext(lf.NativePath)
 	if mimeType, _, found := lf.mediaTypes.GetFirstBySuffix(strings.TrimPrefix(ext, ".")); found {
-		return mimeType.Type()
+		return mimeType.Type
 	}
 
 	return mime.TypeByExtension(ext)
@@ -495,7 +479,7 @@ func knownHiddenDirectory(name string) bool {
 
 // walkLocal walks the source directory and returns a flat list of files,
 // using localFile.SlashPath as the map keys.
-func walkLocal(fs afero.Fs, matchers []*matcher, include, exclude glob.Glob, mediaTypes media.Types) (map[string]*localFile, error) {
+func walkLocal(fs afero.Fs, matchers []*Matcher, include, exclude glob.Glob, mediaTypes media.Types) (map[string]*localFile, error) {
 	retval := map[string]*localFile{}
 	err := afero.Walk(fs, "", func(path string, info os.FileInfo, err error) error {
 		if err != nil {
@@ -534,7 +518,7 @@ func walkLocal(fs afero.Fs, matchers []*matcher, include, exclude glob.Glob, med
 		}
 
 		// Find the first matching matcher (if any).
-		var m *matcher
+		var m *Matcher
 		for _, cur := range matchers {
 			if cur.Matches(slashpath) {
 				m = cur
diff --git a/deploy/deployConfig.go b/deploy/deployConfig.go
index 477751d33..3f5465171 100644
--- a/deploy/deployConfig.go
+++ b/deploy/deployConfig.go
@@ -25,23 +25,37 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gobwas/glob"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	hglob "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 )
 
 const deploymentConfigKey = "deployment"
 
-// deployConfig is the complete configuration for deployment.
-type deployConfig struct {
-	Targets  []*target
-	Matchers []*matcher
+// DeployConfig is the complete configuration for deployment.
+type DeployConfig struct {
+	Targets  []*Target
+	Matchers []*Matcher
 	Order    []string
 
-	ordering   []*regexp.Regexp // compiled Order
-	mediaTypes media.Types
+	// Usually set via flags.
+	// Target deployment Name; defaults to the first one.
+	Target string
+	// Show a confirm prompt before deploying.
+	Confirm bool
+	// DryRun will try the deployment without any remote changes.
+	DryRun bool
+	// Force will re-upload all files.
+	Force bool
+	// Invalidate the CDN cache listed in the deployment target.
+	InvalidateCDN bool
+	// MaxDeletes is the maximum number of files to delete.
+	MaxDeletes int
+	// Number of concurrent workers to use when uploading files.
+	Workers int
+
+	ordering []*regexp.Regexp // compiled Order
 }
 
-type target struct {
+type Target struct {
 	Name string
 	URL  string
 
@@ -61,7 +75,7 @@ type target struct {
 	excludeGlob glob.Glob
 }
 
-func (tgt *target) parseIncludeExclude() error {
+func (tgt *Target) parseIncludeExclude() error {
 	var err error
 	if tgt.Include != "" {
 		tgt.includeGlob, err = hglob.GetGlob(tgt.Include)
@@ -78,9 +92,9 @@ func (tgt *target) parseIncludeExclude() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-// matcher represents configuration to be applied to files whose paths match
+// Matcher represents configuration to be applied to files whose paths match
 // a specified pattern.
-type matcher struct {
+type Matcher struct {
 	// Pattern is the string pattern to match against paths.
 	// Matching is done against paths converted to use / as the path separator.
 	Pattern string
@@ -109,15 +123,14 @@ type matcher struct {
 	re *regexp.Regexp
 }
 
-func (m *matcher) Matches(path string) bool {
+func (m *Matcher) Matches(path string) bool {
 	return m.re.MatchString(path)
 }
 
-// decode creates a config from a given Hugo configuration.
-func decodeConfig(cfg config.Provider) (deployConfig, error) {
+// DecodeConfig creates a config from a given Hugo configuration.
+func DecodeConfig(cfg config.Provider) (DeployConfig, error) {
 	var (
-		mediaTypesConfig []map[string]any
-		dcfg             deployConfig
+		dcfg DeployConfig
 	)
 
 	if !cfg.IsSet(deploymentConfigKey) {
@@ -126,8 +139,13 @@ func decodeConfig(cfg config.Provider) (deployConfig, error) {
 	if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(cfg.GetStringMap(deploymentConfigKey), &dcfg); err != nil {
 		return dcfg, err
 	}
+
+	if dcfg.Workers <= 0 {
+		dcfg.Workers = 10
+	}
+
 	for _, tgt := range dcfg.Targets {
-		if *tgt == (target{}) {
+		if *tgt == (Target{}) {
 			return dcfg, errors.New("empty deployment target")
 		}
 		if err := tgt.parseIncludeExclude(); err != nil {
@@ -136,7 +154,7 @@ func decodeConfig(cfg config.Provider) (deployConfig, error) {
 	}
 	var err error
 	for _, m := range dcfg.Matchers {
-		if *m == (matcher{}) {
+		if *m == (Matcher{}) {
 			return dcfg, errors.New("empty deployment matcher")
 		}
 		m.re, err = regexp.Compile(m.Pattern)
@@ -152,13 +170,5 @@ func decodeConfig(cfg config.Provider) (deployConfig, error) {
 		dcfg.ordering = append(dcfg.ordering, re)
 	}
 
-	if cfg.IsSet("mediaTypes") {
-		mediaTypesConfig = append(mediaTypesConfig, cfg.GetStringMap("mediaTypes"))
-	}
-
-	dcfg.mediaTypes, err = media.DecodeTypes(mediaTypesConfig...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return dcfg, err
-	}
 	return dcfg, nil
 }
diff --git a/deploy/deployConfig_test.go b/deploy/deployConfig_test.go
index ed03d57db..2dbe18715 100644
--- a/deploy/deployConfig_test.go
+++ b/deploy/deployConfig_test.go
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ force = true
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(tomlConfig, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	dcfg, err := decodeConfig(cfg)
+	dcfg, err := DecodeConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	// Order.
@@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ order = ["["]  # invalid regular expression
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(tomlConfig, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	_, err = decodeConfig(cfg)
+	_, err = DecodeConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 }
 
@@ -157,14 +157,14 @@ Pattern = "["  # invalid regular expression
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(tomlConfig, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	_, err = decodeConfig(cfg)
+	_, err = DecodeConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 }
 
 func TestDecodeConfigDefault(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	dcfg, err := decodeConfig(config.New())
+	dcfg, err := DecodeConfig(config.New())
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(len(dcfg.Targets), qt.Equals, 0)
 	c.Assert(len(dcfg.Matchers), qt.Equals, 0)
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ func TestEmptyTarget(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(tomlConfig, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	_, err = decodeConfig(cfg)
+	_, err = DecodeConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 }
 
@@ -194,6 +194,6 @@ func TestEmptyMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg, err := config.FromConfigString(tomlConfig, "toml")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	_, err = decodeConfig(cfg)
+	_, err = DecodeConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 }
diff --git a/deploy/deploy_test.go b/deploy/deploy_test.go
index 5c436abf2..fe874fbbd 100644
--- a/deploy/deploy_test.go
+++ b/deploy/deploy_test.go
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ func TestFindDiffs(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			Description: "local == remote with route.Force true -> diffs",
 			Local: []*localFile{
-				{NativePath: "aaa", SlashPath: "aaa", UploadSize: 1, matcher: &matcher{Force: true}, md5: hash1},
+				{NativePath: "aaa", SlashPath: "aaa", UploadSize: 1, matcher: &Matcher{Force: true}, md5: hash1},
 				makeLocal("bbb", 2, hash1),
 			},
 			Remote: []*blob.ListObject{
@@ -289,8 +289,8 @@ func TestLocalFile(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
 		Description         string
 		Path                string
-		Matcher             *matcher
-		MediaTypesConfig    []map[string]any
+		Matcher             *Matcher
+		MediaTypesConfig    map[string]any
 		WantContent         []byte
 		WantSize            int64
 		WantMD5             []byte
@@ -315,7 +315,7 @@ func TestLocalFile(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			Description:      "CacheControl from matcher",
 			Path:             "foo.txt",
-			Matcher:          &matcher{CacheControl: "max-age=630720000"},
+			Matcher:          &Matcher{CacheControl: "max-age=630720000"},
 			WantContent:      contentBytes,
 			WantSize:         contentLen,
 			WantMD5:          contentMD5[:],
@@ -324,7 +324,7 @@ func TestLocalFile(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			Description:         "ContentEncoding from matcher",
 			Path:                "foo.txt",
-			Matcher:             &matcher{ContentEncoding: "foobar"},
+			Matcher:             &Matcher{ContentEncoding: "foobar"},
 			WantContent:         contentBytes,
 			WantSize:            contentLen,
 			WantMD5:             contentMD5[:],
@@ -333,7 +333,7 @@ func TestLocalFile(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			Description:     "ContentType from matcher",
 			Path:            "foo.txt",
-			Matcher:         &matcher{ContentType: "foo/bar"},
+			Matcher:         &Matcher{ContentType: "foo/bar"},
 			WantContent:     contentBytes,
 			WantSize:        contentLen,
 			WantMD5:         contentMD5[:],
@@ -342,7 +342,7 @@ func TestLocalFile(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			Description:         "gzipped content",
 			Path:                "foo.txt",
-			Matcher:             &matcher{Gzip: true},
+			Matcher:             &Matcher{Gzip: true},
 			WantContent:         gzBytes,
 			WantSize:            gzLen,
 			WantMD5:             gzMD5[:],
@@ -351,11 +351,9 @@ func TestLocalFile(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			Description: "Custom MediaType",
 			Path:        "foo.hugo",
-			MediaTypesConfig: []map[string]any{
-				{
-					"hugo/custom": map[string]any{
-						"suffixes": []string{"hugo"},
-					},
+			MediaTypesConfig: map[string]any{
+				"hugo/custom": map[string]any{
+					"suffixes": []string{"hugo"},
 				},
 			},
 			WantContent:     contentBytes,
@@ -373,11 +371,11 @@ func TestLocalFile(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			mediaTypes := media.DefaultTypes
 			if len(tc.MediaTypesConfig) > 0 {
-				mt, err := media.DecodeTypes(tc.MediaTypesConfig...)
+				mt, err := media.DecodeTypes(tc.MediaTypesConfig)
 				if err != nil {
 					t.Fatal(err)
 				}
-				mediaTypes = mt
+				mediaTypes = mt.Config
 			}
 			lf, err := newLocalFile(fs, tc.Path, filepath.ToSlash(tc.Path), tc.Matcher, mediaTypes)
 			if err != nil {
@@ -556,9 +554,9 @@ func TestEndToEndSync(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			deployer := &Deployer{
 				localFs:    test.fs,
-				maxDeletes: -1,
 				bucket:     test.bucket,
 				mediaTypes: media.DefaultTypes,
+				cfg:        DeployConfig{MaxDeletes: -1},
 			}
 
 			// Initial deployment should sync remote with local.
@@ -639,9 +637,9 @@ func TestMaxDeletes(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			deployer := &Deployer{
 				localFs:    test.fs,
-				maxDeletes: -1,
 				bucket:     test.bucket,
 				mediaTypes: media.DefaultTypes,
+				cfg:        DeployConfig{MaxDeletes: -1},
 			}
 
 			// Sync remote with local.
@@ -662,7 +660,7 @@ func TestMaxDeletes(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 
 			// A deployment with maxDeletes=0 shouldn't change anything.
-			deployer.maxDeletes = 0
+			deployer.cfg.MaxDeletes = 0
 			if err := deployer.Deploy(ctx); err != nil {
 				t.Errorf("deploy failed: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -672,7 +670,7 @@ func TestMaxDeletes(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 
 			// A deployment with maxDeletes=1 shouldn't change anything either.
-			deployer.maxDeletes = 1
+			deployer.cfg.MaxDeletes = 1
 			if err := deployer.Deploy(ctx); err != nil {
 				t.Errorf("deploy failed: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -682,7 +680,7 @@ func TestMaxDeletes(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 
 			// A deployment with maxDeletes=2 should make the changes.
-			deployer.maxDeletes = 2
+			deployer.cfg.MaxDeletes = 2
 			if err := deployer.Deploy(ctx); err != nil {
 				t.Errorf("deploy failed: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -700,7 +698,7 @@ func TestMaxDeletes(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 
 			// A deployment with maxDeletes=-1 should make the changes.
-			deployer.maxDeletes = -1
+			deployer.cfg.MaxDeletes = -1
 			if err := deployer.Deploy(ctx); err != nil {
 				t.Errorf("deploy failed: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -762,7 +760,7 @@ func TestIncludeExclude(t *testing.T) {
 			if err != nil {
 				t.Fatal(err)
 			}
-			tgt := &target{
+			tgt := &Target{
 				Include: test.Include,
 				Exclude: test.Exclude,
 			}
@@ -770,9 +768,8 @@ func TestIncludeExclude(t *testing.T) {
 				t.Error(err)
 			}
 			deployer := &Deployer{
-				localFs:    fsTest.fs,
-				maxDeletes: -1,
-				bucket:     fsTest.bucket,
+				localFs: fsTest.fs,
+				cfg:     DeployConfig{MaxDeletes: -1}, bucket: fsTest.bucket,
 				target:     tgt,
 				mediaTypes: media.DefaultTypes,
 			}
@@ -828,9 +825,8 @@ func TestIncludeExcludeRemoteDelete(t *testing.T) {
 				t.Fatal(err)
 			}
 			deployer := &Deployer{
-				localFs:    fsTest.fs,
-				maxDeletes: -1,
-				bucket:     fsTest.bucket,
+				localFs: fsTest.fs,
+				cfg:     DeployConfig{MaxDeletes: -1}, bucket: fsTest.bucket,
 				mediaTypes: media.DefaultTypes,
 			}
 
@@ -848,7 +844,7 @@ func TestIncludeExcludeRemoteDelete(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 
 			// Second sync
-			tgt := &target{
+			tgt := &Target{
 				Include: test.Include,
 				Exclude: test.Exclude,
 			}
@@ -882,7 +878,7 @@ func TestCompression(t *testing.T) {
 			deployer := &Deployer{
 				localFs:    test.fs,
 				bucket:     test.bucket,
-				matchers:   []*matcher{{Pattern: ".*", Gzip: true, re: regexp.MustCompile(".*")}},
+				cfg:        DeployConfig{MaxDeletes: -1, Matchers: []*Matcher{{Pattern: ".*", Gzip: true, re: regexp.MustCompile(".*")}}},
 				mediaTypes: media.DefaultTypes,
 			}
 
@@ -937,7 +933,7 @@ func TestMatching(t *testing.T) {
 			deployer := &Deployer{
 				localFs:    test.fs,
 				bucket:     test.bucket,
-				matchers:   []*matcher{{Pattern: "^subdir/aaa$", Force: true, re: regexp.MustCompile("^subdir/aaa$")}},
+				cfg:        DeployConfig{MaxDeletes: -1, Matchers: []*Matcher{{Pattern: "^subdir/aaa$", Force: true, re: regexp.MustCompile("^subdir/aaa$")}}},
 				mediaTypes: media.DefaultTypes,
 			}
 
@@ -962,7 +958,7 @@ func TestMatching(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 
 			// Repeat with a matcher that should now match 3 files.
-			deployer.matchers = []*matcher{{Pattern: "aaa", Force: true, re: regexp.MustCompile("aaa")}}
+			deployer.cfg.Matchers = []*Matcher{{Pattern: "aaa", Force: true, re: regexp.MustCompile("aaa")}}
 			if err := deployer.Deploy(ctx); err != nil {
 				t.Errorf("no-op deploy with triple force matcher: %v", err)
 			}
diff --git a/deps/deps.go b/deps/deps.go
index 511ee885c..9cb8557a5 100644
--- a/deps/deps.go
+++ b/deps/deps.go
@@ -4,30 +4,27 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"sort"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"sync/atomic"
-	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/postpub"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/metrics"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
-	"github.com/spf13/cast"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	jww "github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
 )
 
@@ -45,10 +42,7 @@ type Deps struct {
 	ExecHelper *hexec.Exec
 
 	// The templates to use. This will usually implement the full tpl.TemplateManager.
-	tmpl tpl.TemplateHandler
-
-	// We use this to parse and execute ad-hoc text templates.
-	textTmpl tpl.TemplateParseFinder
+	tmplHandlers *tpl.TemplateHandlers
 
 	// The file systems to use.
 	Fs *hugofs.Fs `json:"-"`
@@ -66,56 +60,170 @@ type Deps struct {
 	ResourceSpec *resources.Spec
 
 	// The configuration to use
-	Cfg config.Provider `json:"-"`
-
-	// The file cache to use.
-	FileCaches filecache.Caches
+	Conf config.AllProvider `json:"-"`
 
 	// The translation func to use
 	Translate func(ctx context.Context, translationID string, templateData any) string `json:"-"`
 
-	// The language in use. TODO(bep) consolidate with site
-	Language *langs.Language
-
 	// The site building.
 	Site page.Site
 
-	// All the output formats available for the current site.
-	OutputFormatsConfig output.Formats
-
-	// FilenameHasPostProcessPrefix is a set of filenames in /public that
-	// contains a post-processing prefix.
-	FilenameHasPostProcessPrefix []string
-
-	templateProvider ResourceProvider
-	WithTemplate     func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error `json:"-"`
-
+	TemplateProvider ResourceProvider
 	// Used in tests
 	OverloadedTemplateFuncs map[string]any
 
-	translationProvider ResourceProvider
+	TranslationProvider ResourceProvider
 
 	Metrics metrics.Provider
 
-	// Timeout is configurable in site config.
-	Timeout time.Duration
-
 	// BuildStartListeners will be notified before a build starts.
 	BuildStartListeners *Listeners
 
 	// Resources that gets closed when the build is done or the server shuts down.
 	BuildClosers *Closers
 
-	// Atomic values set during a build.
 	// This is common/global for all sites.
 	BuildState *BuildState
 
-	// Whether we are in running (server) mode
-	Running bool
-
 	*globalErrHandler
 }
 
+func (d Deps) Clone(s page.Site, conf config.AllProvider) (*Deps, error) {
+	d.Conf = conf
+	d.Site = s
+	d.ExecHelper = nil
+	d.ContentSpec = nil
+
+	if err := d.Init(); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	return &d, nil
+
+}
+
+func (d *Deps) SetTempl(t *tpl.TemplateHandlers) {
+	d.tmplHandlers = t
+}
+
+func (d *Deps) Init() error {
+	if d.Conf == nil {
+		panic("conf is nil")
+	}
+
+	if d.Fs == nil {
+		// For tests.
+		d.Fs = hugofs.NewFrom(afero.NewMemMapFs(), d.Conf.BaseConfig())
+	}
+
+	if d.Log == nil {
+		d.Log = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
+	}
+
+	if d.LogDistinct == nil {
+		d.LogDistinct = helpers.NewDistinctLogger(d.Log)
+	}
+
+	if d.globalErrHandler == nil {
+		d.globalErrHandler = &globalErrHandler{}
+	}
+
+	if d.BuildState == nil {
+		d.BuildState = &BuildState{}
+	}
+
+	if d.BuildStartListeners == nil {
+		d.BuildStartListeners = &Listeners{}
+	}
+
+	if d.BuildClosers == nil {
+		d.BuildClosers = &Closers{}
+	}
+
+	if d.Metrics == nil && d.Conf.TemplateMetrics() {
+		d.Metrics = metrics.NewProvider(d.Conf.TemplateMetricsHints())
+	}
+
+	if d.ExecHelper == nil {
+		d.ExecHelper = hexec.New(d.Conf.GetConfigSection("security").(security.Config))
+	}
+
+	if d.PathSpec == nil {
+		hashBytesReceiverFunc := func(name string, match bool) {
+			if !match {
+				return
+			}
+			d.BuildState.AddFilenameWithPostPrefix(name)
+		}
+
+		// Skip binary files.
+		mediaTypes := d.Conf.GetConfigSection("mediaTypes").(media.Types)
+		hashBytesSHouldCheck := func(name string) bool {
+			ext := strings.TrimPrefix(filepath.Ext(name), ".")
+			return mediaTypes.IsTextSuffix(ext)
+		}
+		d.Fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewHasBytesReceiver(d.Fs.PublishDir, hashBytesSHouldCheck, hashBytesReceiverFunc, []byte(postpub.PostProcessPrefix))
+		pathSpec, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(d.Fs, d.Conf, d.Log)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		d.PathSpec = pathSpec
+	} else {
+		var err error
+		d.PathSpec, err = helpers.NewPathSpecWithBaseBaseFsProvided(d.Fs, d.Conf, d.Log, d.PathSpec.BaseFs)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+
+	if d.ContentSpec == nil {
+		contentSpec, err := helpers.NewContentSpec(d.Conf, d.Log, d.Content.Fs, d.ExecHelper)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		d.ContentSpec = contentSpec
+	}
+
+	if d.SourceSpec == nil {
+		d.SourceSpec = source.NewSourceSpec(d.PathSpec, nil, d.Fs.Source)
+	}
+
+	var common *resources.SpecCommon
+	if d.ResourceSpec != nil {
+		common = d.ResourceSpec.SpecCommon
+	}
+	resourceSpec, err := resources.NewSpec(d.PathSpec, common, d.BuildState, d.Log, d, d.ExecHelper)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create resource spec: %w", err)
+	}
+	d.ResourceSpec = resourceSpec
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (d *Deps) Compile(prototype *Deps) error {
+	var err error
+	if prototype == nil {
+		if err = d.TemplateProvider.NewResource(d); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if err = d.TranslationProvider.NewResource(d); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	if err = d.TemplateProvider.CloneResource(d, prototype); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	if err = d.TranslationProvider.CloneResource(d, prototype); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
 type globalErrHandler struct {
 	// Channel for some "hard to get to" build errors
 	buildErrors chan error
@@ -181,236 +289,22 @@ func (b *Listeners) Notify() {
 
 // ResourceProvider is used to create and refresh, and clone resources needed.
 type ResourceProvider interface {
-	Update(deps *Deps) error
-	Clone(deps *Deps) error
+	NewResource(dst *Deps) error
+	CloneResource(dst, src *Deps) error
 }
 
 func (d *Deps) Tmpl() tpl.TemplateHandler {
-	return d.tmpl
+	return d.tmplHandlers.Tmpl
 }
 
 func (d *Deps) TextTmpl() tpl.TemplateParseFinder {
-	return d.textTmpl
-}
-
-func (d *Deps) SetTmpl(tmpl tpl.TemplateHandler) {
-	d.tmpl = tmpl
-}
-
-func (d *Deps) SetTextTmpl(tmpl tpl.TemplateParseFinder) {
-	d.textTmpl = tmpl
-}
-
-// LoadResources loads translations and templates.
-func (d *Deps) LoadResources() error {
-	// Note that the translations need to be loaded before the templates.
-	if err := d.translationProvider.Update(d); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("loading translations: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	if err := d.templateProvider.Update(d); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("loading templates: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-// New initializes a Dep struct.
-// Defaults are set for nil values,
-// but TemplateProvider, TranslationProvider and Language are always required.
-func New(cfg DepsCfg) (*Deps, error) {
-	var (
-		logger = cfg.Logger
-		fs     = cfg.Fs
-		d      *Deps
-	)
-
-	if cfg.TemplateProvider == nil {
-		panic("Must have a TemplateProvider")
-	}
-
-	if cfg.TranslationProvider == nil {
-		panic("Must have a TranslationProvider")
-	}
-
-	if cfg.Language == nil {
-		panic("Must have a Language")
-	}
-
-	if logger == nil {
-		logger = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
-	}
-
-	if fs == nil {
-		// Default to the production file system.
-		fs = hugofs.NewDefault(cfg.Language)
-	}
-
-	if cfg.MediaTypes == nil {
-		cfg.MediaTypes = media.DefaultTypes
-	}
-
-	if cfg.OutputFormats == nil {
-		cfg.OutputFormats = output.DefaultFormats
-	}
-
-	securityConfig, err := security.DecodeConfig(cfg.Cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create security config from configuration: %w", err)
-	}
-	execHelper := hexec.New(securityConfig)
-
-	var filenameHasPostProcessPrefixMu sync.Mutex
-	hashBytesReceiverFunc := func(name string, match bool) {
-		if !match {
-			return
-		}
-		filenameHasPostProcessPrefixMu.Lock()
-		d.FilenameHasPostProcessPrefix = append(d.FilenameHasPostProcessPrefix, name)
-		filenameHasPostProcessPrefixMu.Unlock()
-	}
-
-	// Skip binary files.
-	hashBytesSHouldCheck := func(name string) bool {
-		ext := strings.TrimPrefix(filepath.Ext(name), ".")
-		mime, _, found := cfg.MediaTypes.GetBySuffix(ext)
-		if !found {
-			return false
-		}
-		switch mime.MainType {
-		case "text", "application":
-			return true
-		default:
-			return false
-		}
-	}
-	fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewHasBytesReceiver(fs.PublishDir, hashBytesSHouldCheck, hashBytesReceiverFunc, []byte(postpub.PostProcessPrefix))
-
-	ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg.Language, logger)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("create PathSpec: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	fileCaches, err := filecache.NewCaches(ps)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create file caches from configuration: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	errorHandler := &globalErrHandler{}
-	buildState := &BuildState{}
-
-	resourceSpec, err := resources.NewSpec(ps, fileCaches, buildState, logger, errorHandler, execHelper, cfg.OutputFormats, cfg.MediaTypes)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	contentSpec, err := helpers.NewContentSpec(cfg.Language, logger, ps.BaseFs.Content.Fs, execHelper)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	sp := source.NewSourceSpec(ps, nil, fs.Source)
-
-	timeout := 30 * time.Second
-	if cfg.Cfg.IsSet("timeout") {
-		v := cfg.Cfg.Get("timeout")
-		d, err := types.ToDurationE(v)
-		if err == nil {
-			timeout = d
-		}
-	}
-	ignoreErrors := cast.ToStringSlice(cfg.Cfg.Get("ignoreErrors"))
-	ignorableLogger := loggers.NewIgnorableLogger(logger, ignoreErrors...)
-
-	logDistinct := helpers.NewDistinctLogger(logger)
-
-	d = &Deps{
-		Fs:                      fs,
-		Log:                     ignorableLogger,
-		LogDistinct:             logDistinct,
-		ExecHelper:              execHelper,
-		templateProvider:        cfg.TemplateProvider,
-		translationProvider:     cfg.TranslationProvider,
-		WithTemplate:            cfg.WithTemplate,
-		OverloadedTemplateFuncs: cfg.OverloadedTemplateFuncs,
-		PathSpec:                ps,
-		ContentSpec:             contentSpec,
-		SourceSpec:              sp,
-		ResourceSpec:            resourceSpec,
-		Cfg:                     cfg.Language,
-		Language:                cfg.Language,
-		Site:                    cfg.Site,
-		FileCaches:              fileCaches,
-		BuildStartListeners:     &Listeners{},
-		BuildClosers:            &Closers{},
-		BuildState:              buildState,
-		Running:                 cfg.Running,
-		Timeout:                 timeout,
-		globalErrHandler:        errorHandler,
-	}
-
-	if cfg.Cfg.GetBool("templateMetrics") {
-		d.Metrics = metrics.NewProvider(cfg.Cfg.GetBool("templateMetricsHints"))
-	}
-
-	return d, nil
+	return d.tmplHandlers.TxtTmpl
 }
 
 func (d *Deps) Close() error {
 	return d.BuildClosers.Close()
 }
 
-// ForLanguage creates a copy of the Deps with the language dependent
-// parts switched out.
-func (d Deps) ForLanguage(cfg DepsCfg, onCreated func(d *Deps) error) (*Deps, error) {
-	l := cfg.Language
-	var err error
-
-	d.PathSpec, err = helpers.NewPathSpecWithBaseBaseFsProvided(d.Fs, l, d.Log, d.BaseFs)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	d.ContentSpec, err = helpers.NewContentSpec(l, d.Log, d.BaseFs.Content.Fs, d.ExecHelper)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	d.Site = cfg.Site
-
-	// These are common for all sites, so reuse.
-	// TODO(bep) clean up these inits.
-	resourceCache := d.ResourceSpec.ResourceCache
-	postBuildAssets := d.ResourceSpec.PostBuildAssets
-	d.ResourceSpec, err = resources.NewSpec(d.PathSpec, d.ResourceSpec.FileCaches, d.BuildState, d.Log, d.globalErrHandler, d.ExecHelper, cfg.OutputFormats, cfg.MediaTypes)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	d.ResourceSpec.ResourceCache = resourceCache
-	d.ResourceSpec.PostBuildAssets = postBuildAssets
-
-	d.Cfg = l
-	d.Language = l
-
-	if onCreated != nil {
-		if err = onCreated(&d); err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
-	}
-
-	if err := d.translationProvider.Clone(&d); err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	if err := d.templateProvider.Clone(&d); err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	d.BuildStartListeners = &Listeners{}
-
-	return &d, nil
-}
-
 // DepsCfg contains configuration options that can be used to configure Hugo
 // on a global level, i.e. logging etc.
 // Nil values will be given default values.
@@ -422,45 +316,51 @@ type DepsCfg struct {
 	// The file systems to use
 	Fs *hugofs.Fs
 
-	// The language to use.
-	Language *langs.Language
-
 	// The Site in use
 	Site page.Site
 
-	// The configuration to use.
-	Cfg config.Provider
-
-	// The media types configured.
-	MediaTypes media.Types
-
-	// The output formats configured.
-	OutputFormats output.Formats
+	Configs *allconfig.Configs
 
 	// Template handling.
 	TemplateProvider ResourceProvider
-	WithTemplate     func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error
-	// Used in tests
-	OverloadedTemplateFuncs map[string]any
 
 	// i18n handling.
 	TranslationProvider ResourceProvider
-
-	// Whether we are in running (server) mode
-	Running bool
 }
 
-// BuildState are flags that may be turned on during a build.
+// BuildState are state used during a build.
 type BuildState struct {
 	counter uint64
+
+	mu sync.Mutex // protects state below.
+
+	// A set of ilenames in /public that
+	// contains a post-processing prefix.
+	filenamesWithPostPrefix map[string]bool
 }
 
-func (b *BuildState) Incr() int {
-	return int(atomic.AddUint64(&b.counter, uint64(1)))
+func (b *BuildState) AddFilenameWithPostPrefix(filename string) {
+	b.mu.Lock()
+	defer b.mu.Unlock()
+	if b.filenamesWithPostPrefix == nil {
+		b.filenamesWithPostPrefix = make(map[string]bool)
+	}
+	b.filenamesWithPostPrefix[filename] = true
 }
 
-func NewBuildState() BuildState {
-	return BuildState{}
+func (b *BuildState) GetFilenamesWithPostPrefix() []string {
+	b.mu.Lock()
+	defer b.mu.Unlock()
+	var filenames []string
+	for filename := range b.filenamesWithPostPrefix {
+		filenames = append(filenames, filename)
+	}
+	sort.Strings(filenames)
+	return filenames
+}
+
+func (b *BuildState) Incr() int {
+	return int(atomic.AddUint64(&b.counter, uint64(1)))
 }
 
 type Closer interface {
diff --git a/deps/deps_test.go b/deps/deps_test.go
index d68276732..e92ed2327 100644
--- a/deps/deps_test.go
+++ b/deps/deps_test.go
@@ -11,17 +11,18 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package deps
+package deps_test
 
 import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 )
 
 func TestBuildFlags(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	var bf BuildState
+	var bf deps.BuildState
 	bf.Incr()
 	bf.Incr()
 	bf.Incr()
diff --git a/go.mod b/go.mod
index 9acee286d..171d3921f 100644
--- a/go.mod
+++ b/go.mod
@@ -47,12 +47,12 @@ require (
 	github.com/niklasfasching/go-org v1.6.6
 	github.com/olekukonko/tablewriter v0.0.5
 	github.com/pelletier/go-toml/v2 v2.0.6
-	github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.9.0
+	github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.10.1-0.20230508101108-a4f6fabd84c5
 	github.com/rwcarlsen/goexif v0.0.0-20190401172101-9e8deecbddbd
 	github.com/sanity-io/litter v1.5.5
 	github.com/spf13/afero v1.9.3
 	github.com/spf13/cast v1.5.1
-	github.com/spf13/cobra v1.6.1
+	github.com/spf13/cobra v1.7.0
 	github.com/spf13/fsync v0.9.0
 	github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman v1.1.0
 	github.com/spf13/pflag v1.0.5
@@ -94,6 +94,8 @@ require (
 	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sso v1.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/service/sts v1.7.0 // indirect
 	github.com/aws/smithy-go v1.8.0 // indirect
+	github.com/bep/helpers v0.4.0 // indirect
+	github.com/bep/simplecobra v0.2.0 // indirect
 	github.com/cpuguy83/go-md2man/v2 v2.0.2 // indirect
 	github.com/dlclark/regexp2 v1.7.0 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/jsonpointer v0.19.5 // indirect
@@ -106,7 +108,7 @@ require (
 	github.com/googleapis/gax-go/v2 v2.3.0 // indirect
 	github.com/googleapis/go-type-adapters v1.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/golang-lru/v2 v2.0.1 // indirect
-	github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.0.1 // indirect
+	github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/invopop/yaml v0.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/jmespath/go-jmespath v0.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/kr/pretty v0.3.1 // indirect
@@ -119,6 +121,7 @@ require (
 	github.com/russross/blackfriday/v2 v2.1.0 // indirect
 	go.opencensus.io v0.24.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/crypto v0.3.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/mod v0.9.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.2.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/sys v0.5.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/xerrors v0.0.0-20220907171357-04be3eba64a2 // indirect
diff --git a/go.sum b/go.sum
index 29e8d7475..30af63f39 100644
--- a/go.sum
+++ b/go.sum
@@ -179,10 +179,14 @@ github.com/bep/golibsass v1.1.0 h1:pjtXr00IJZZaOdfryNa9wARTB3Q0BmxC3/V1KNcgyTw=
 github.com/bep/golibsass v1.1.0/go.mod h1:DL87K8Un/+pWUS75ggYv41bliGiolxzDKWJAq3eJ1MA=
 github.com/bep/gowebp v0.2.0 h1:ZVfK8i9PpZqKHEmthQSt3qCnnHycbLzBPEsVtk2ch2Q=
 github.com/bep/gowebp v0.2.0/go.mod h1:ZhFodwdiFp8ehGJpF4LdPl6unxZm9lLFjxD3z2h2AgI=
+github.com/bep/helpers v0.4.0 h1:ab9veaAiWY4ST48Oxp5usaqivDmYdB744fz+tcZ3Ifs=
+github.com/bep/helpers v0.4.0/go.mod h1:/QpHdmcPagDw7+RjkLFCvnlUc8lQ5kg4KDrEkb2Yyco=
 github.com/bep/lazycache v0.2.0 h1:HKrlZTrDxHIrNKqmnurH42ryxkngCMYLfBpyu40VcwY=
 github.com/bep/lazycache v0.2.0/go.mod h1:xUIsoRD824Vx0Q/n57+ZO7kmbEhMBOnTjM/iPixNGbg=
 github.com/bep/overlayfs v0.6.0 h1:sgLcq/qtIzbaQNl2TldGXOkHvqeZB025sPvHOQL+DYo=
 github.com/bep/overlayfs v0.6.0/go.mod h1:NFjSmn3kCqG7KX2Lmz8qT8VhPPCwZap3UNogXawoQHM=
+github.com/bep/simplecobra v0.2.0 h1:gfdZZ8QlPBMC9R9DRzUsxExR3FyuNtRkqMJqK98SBno=
+github.com/bep/simplecobra v0.2.0/go.mod h1:EOp6bCKuuHmwA9bQcRC8LcDB60co2Cmht5X4xMIOwf0=
 github.com/bep/tmc v0.5.1 h1:CsQnSC6MsomH64gw0cT5f+EwQDcvZz4AazKunFwTpuI=
 github.com/bep/tmc v0.5.1/go.mod h1:tGYHN8fS85aJPhDLgXETVKp+PR382OvFi2+q2GkGsq0=
 github.com/bep/workers v1.0.0 h1:U+H8YmEaBCEaFZBst7GcRVEoqeRC9dzH2dWOwGmOchg=
@@ -408,6 +412,8 @@ github.com/ianlancetaylor/demangle v0.0.0-20181102032728-5e5cf60278f6/go.mod h1:
 github.com/ianlancetaylor/demangle v0.0.0-20200824232613-28f6c0f3b639/go.mod h1:aSSvb/t6k1mPoxDqO4vJh6VOCGPwU4O0C2/Eqndh1Sc=
 github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.0.1 h1:U3uMjPSQEBMNp1lFxmllqCPM6P5u/Xq7Pgzkat/bFNc=
 github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.0.1/go.mod h1:vpF70FUmC8bwa3OWnCshd2FqLfsEA9PFc4w1p2J65bw=
+github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0 h1:wN+x4NVGpMsO7ErUn/mUI3vEoE6Jt13X2s0bqwp9tc8=
+github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0/go.mod h1:vpF70FUmC8bwa3OWnCshd2FqLfsEA9PFc4w1p2J65bw=
 github.com/invopop/yaml v0.1.0 h1:YW3WGUoJEXYfzWBjn00zIlrw7brGVD0fUKRYDPAPhrc=
 github.com/invopop/yaml v0.1.0/go.mod h1:2XuRLgs/ouIrW3XNzuNj7J3Nvu/Dig5MXvbCEdiBN3Q=
 github.com/jdkato/prose v1.2.1 h1:Fp3UnJmLVISmlc57BgKUzdjr0lOtjqTZicL3PaYy6cU=
@@ -493,6 +499,8 @@ github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.3.0/go.mod h1:M8bDsm7K2OlrFYOpmOWEs/qY81heoFR
 github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.6.1/go.mod h1:xXDCJY+GAPziupqXw64V24skbSoqbTEfhy4qGm1nDQc=
 github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.9.0 h1:73kH8U+JUqXU8lRuOHeVHaa/SZPifC7BkcraZVejAe8=
 github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.9.0/go.mod h1:WtVeX8xhTBvf0smdhujwtBcq4Qrzq/fJaraNFVN+nFs=
+github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.10.1-0.20230508101108-a4f6fabd84c5 h1:Tb1D114RozKzV2dDfarvSZn8lVYvjcGSCDaMQ+b4I+E=
+github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal v1.10.1-0.20230508101108-a4f6fabd84c5/go.mod h1:ddIwULY96R17DhadqLgMfk9H9tvdUzkipdSkR5nkCZA=
 github.com/russross/blackfriday/v2 v2.1.0 h1:JIOH55/0cWyOuilr9/qlrm0BSXldqnqwMsf35Ld67mk=
 github.com/russross/blackfriday/v2 v2.1.0/go.mod h1:+Rmxgy9KzJVeS9/2gXHxylqXiyQDYRxCVz55jmeOWTM=
 github.com/rwcarlsen/goexif v0.0.0-20190401172101-9e8deecbddbd h1:CmH9+J6ZSsIjUK3dcGsnCnO41eRBOnY12zwkn5qVwgc=
@@ -510,6 +518,8 @@ github.com/spf13/cast v1.5.1 h1:R+kOtfhWQE6TVQzY+4D7wJLBgkdVasCEFxSUBYBYIlA=
 github.com/spf13/cast v1.5.1/go.mod h1:b9PdjNptOpzXr7Rq1q9gJML/2cdGQAo69NKzQ10KN48=
 github.com/spf13/cobra v1.6.1 h1:o94oiPyS4KD1mPy2fmcYYHHfCxLqYjJOhGsCHFZtEzA=
 github.com/spf13/cobra v1.6.1/go.mod h1:IOw/AERYS7UzyrGinqmz6HLUo219MORXGxhbaJUqzrY=
+github.com/spf13/cobra v1.7.0 h1:hyqWnYt1ZQShIddO5kBpj3vu05/++x6tJ6dg8EC572I=
+github.com/spf13/cobra v1.7.0/go.mod h1:uLxZILRyS/50WlhOIKD7W6V5bgeIt+4sICxh6uRMrb0=
 github.com/spf13/fsync v0.9.0 h1:f9CEt3DOB2mnHxZaftmEOFWjABEvKM/xpf3cUwJrGOY=
 github.com/spf13/fsync v0.9.0/go.mod h1:fNtJEfG3HiltN3y4cPOz6MLjos9+2pIEqLIgszqhp/0=
 github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman v1.1.0 h1:ue6voC5bR5F8YxI5S67j9i582FU4Qvo2bmqnqMYADFk=
@@ -628,6 +638,8 @@ golang.org/x/mod v0.4.1/go.mod h1:s0Qsj1ACt9ePp/hMypM3fl4fZqREWJwdYDEqhRiZZUA=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.4.2/go.mod h1:s0Qsj1ACt9ePp/hMypM3fl4fZqREWJwdYDEqhRiZZUA=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.5.0/go.mod h1:5OXOZSfqPIIbmVBIIKWRFfZjPR0E5r58TLhUjH0a2Ro=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.6.0-dev.0.20220419223038-86c51ed26bb4/go.mod h1:jJ57K6gSWd91VN4djpZkiMVwK6gcyfeH4XE8wZrZaV4=
+golang.org/x/mod v0.9.0 h1:KENHtAZL2y3NLMYZeHY9DW8HW8V+kQyJsY/V9JlKvCs=
+golang.org/x/mod v0.9.0/go.mod h1:iBbtSCu2XBx23ZKBPSOrRkjjQPZFPuis4dIYUhu/chs=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180724234803-3673e40ba225/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180826012351-8a410e7b638d/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20190108225652-1e06a53dbb7e/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
diff --git a/helpers/content.go b/helpers/content.go
index d04e34a07..510d496b9 100644
--- a/helpers/content.go
+++ b/helpers/content.go
@@ -50,30 +50,18 @@ type ContentSpec struct {
 	anchorNameSanitizer converter.AnchorNameSanitizer
 	getRenderer         func(t hooks.RendererType, id any) any
 
-	// SummaryLength is the length of the summary that Hugo extracts from a content.
-	summaryLength int
-
-	BuildFuture  bool
-	BuildExpired bool
-	BuildDrafts  bool
-
-	Cfg config.Provider
+	Cfg config.AllProvider
 }
 
 // NewContentSpec returns a ContentSpec initialized
 // with the appropriate fields from the given config.Provider.
-func NewContentSpec(cfg config.Provider, logger loggers.Logger, contentFs afero.Fs, ex *hexec.Exec) (*ContentSpec, error) {
+func NewContentSpec(cfg config.AllProvider, logger loggers.Logger, contentFs afero.Fs, ex *hexec.Exec) (*ContentSpec, error) {
 	spec := &ContentSpec{
-		summaryLength: cfg.GetInt("summaryLength"),
-		BuildFuture:   cfg.GetBool("buildFuture"),
-		BuildExpired:  cfg.GetBool("buildExpired"),
-		BuildDrafts:   cfg.GetBool("buildDrafts"),
-
 		Cfg: cfg,
 	}
 
 	converterProvider, err := markup.NewConverterProvider(converter.ProviderConfig{
-		Cfg:       cfg,
+		Conf:      cfg,
 		ContentFs: contentFs,
 		Logger:    logger,
 		Exec:      ex,
@@ -157,6 +145,9 @@ func (c *ContentSpec) SanitizeAnchorName(s string) string {
 }
 
 func (c *ContentSpec) ResolveMarkup(in string) string {
+	if c == nil {
+		panic("nil ContentSpec")
+	}
 	in = strings.ToLower(in)
 	switch in {
 	case "md", "markdown", "mdown":
@@ -194,17 +185,17 @@ func (c *ContentSpec) TruncateWordsByRune(in []string) (string, bool) {
 
 	count := 0
 	for index, word := range words {
-		if count >= c.summaryLength {
+		if count >= c.Cfg.SummaryLength() {
 			return strings.Join(words[:index], " "), true
 		}
 		runeCount := utf8.RuneCountInString(word)
 		if len(word) == runeCount {
 			count++
-		} else if count+runeCount < c.summaryLength {
+		} else if count+runeCount < c.Cfg.SummaryLength() {
 			count += runeCount
 		} else {
 			for ri := range word {
-				if count >= c.summaryLength {
+				if count >= c.Cfg.SummaryLength() {
 					truncatedWords := append(words[:index], word[:ri])
 					return strings.Join(truncatedWords, " "), true
 				}
@@ -229,7 +220,7 @@ func (c *ContentSpec) TruncateWordsToWholeSentence(s string) (string, bool) {
 			wordCount++
 			lastWordIndex = i
 
-			if wordCount >= c.summaryLength {
+			if wordCount >= c.Cfg.SummaryLength() {
 				break
 			}
 
@@ -283,19 +274,19 @@ func isEndOfSentence(r rune) bool {
 func (c *ContentSpec) truncateWordsToWholeSentenceOld(content string) (string, bool) {
 	words := strings.Fields(content)
 
-	if c.summaryLength >= len(words) {
+	if c.Cfg.SummaryLength() >= len(words) {
 		return strings.Join(words, " "), false
 	}
 
-	for counter, word := range words[c.summaryLength:] {
+	for counter, word := range words[c.Cfg.SummaryLength():] {
 		if strings.HasSuffix(word, ".") ||
 			strings.HasSuffix(word, "?") ||
 			strings.HasSuffix(word, ".\"") ||
 			strings.HasSuffix(word, "!") {
-			upper := c.summaryLength + counter + 1
+			upper := c.Cfg.SummaryLength() + counter + 1
 			return strings.Join(words[:upper], " "), (upper < len(words))
 		}
 	}
 
-	return strings.Join(words[:c.summaryLength], " "), true
+	return strings.Join(words[:c.Cfg.SummaryLength()], " "), true
 }
diff --git a/helpers/content_test.go b/helpers/content_test.go
index 54b7ef3f9..2909c0266 100644
--- a/helpers/content_test.go
+++ b/helpers/content_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package helpers
+package helpers_test
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
@@ -19,12 +19,9 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 )
 
 const tstHTMLContent = "<!DOCTYPE html><html><head><script src=\"http://two/foobar.js\"></script></head><body><nav><ul><li hugo-nav=\"section_0\"></li><li hugo-nav=\"section_1\"></li></ul></nav><article>content <a href=\"http://two/foobar\">foobar</a>. Follow up</article><p>This is some text.<br>And some more.</p></body></html>"
@@ -43,7 +40,7 @@ func TestTrimShortHTML(t *testing.T) {
 		{[]byte("<p>Hello</p>\n<ul>\n<li>list1</li>\n<li>list2</li>\n</ul>"), []byte("<p>Hello</p>\n<ul>\n<li>list1</li>\n<li>list2</li>\n</ul>")},
 	}
 
-	c := newTestContentSpec()
+	c := newTestContentSpec(nil)
 	for i, test := range tests {
 		output := c.TrimShortHTML(test.input)
 		if !bytes.Equal(test.output, output) {
@@ -52,55 +49,23 @@ func TestTrimShortHTML(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestStripEmptyNav(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	cleaned := stripEmptyNav([]byte("do<nav>\n</nav>\n\nbedobedo"))
-	c.Assert(cleaned, qt.DeepEquals, []byte("dobedobedo"))
-}
-
 func TestBytesToHTML(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	c.Assert(BytesToHTML([]byte("dobedobedo")), qt.Equals, template.HTML("dobedobedo"))
-}
-
-func TestNewContentSpec(t *testing.T) {
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	cfg.Set("summaryLength", 32)
-	cfg.Set("buildFuture", true)
-	cfg.Set("buildExpired", true)
-	cfg.Set("buildDrafts", true)
-
-	spec, err := NewContentSpec(cfg, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil)
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(spec.summaryLength, qt.Equals, 32)
-	c.Assert(spec.BuildFuture, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(spec.BuildExpired, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(spec.BuildDrafts, qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(helpers.BytesToHTML([]byte("dobedobedo")), qt.Equals, template.HTML("dobedobedo"))
 }
 
 var benchmarkTruncateString = strings.Repeat("This is a sentence about nothing.", 20)
 
 func BenchmarkTestTruncateWordsToWholeSentence(b *testing.B) {
-	c := newTestContentSpec()
+	c := newTestContentSpec(nil)
 	b.ResetTimer()
 	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 		c.TruncateWordsToWholeSentence(benchmarkTruncateString)
 	}
 }
 
-func BenchmarkTestTruncateWordsToWholeSentenceOld(b *testing.B) {
-	c := newTestContentSpec()
-	b.ResetTimer()
-	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-		c.truncateWordsToWholeSentenceOld(benchmarkTruncateString)
-	}
-}
-
 func TestTruncateWordsToWholeSentence(t *testing.T) {
-	c := newTestContentSpec()
+
 	type test struct {
 		input, expected string
 		max             int
@@ -118,7 +83,9 @@ func TestTruncateWordsToWholeSentence(t *testing.T) {
 		{"This... is a more difficult test?", "This... is a more difficult test?", 1, false},
 	}
 	for i, d := range data {
-		c.summaryLength = d.max
+		cfg := config.New()
+		cfg.Set("summaryLength", d.max)
+		c := newTestContentSpec(cfg)
 		output, truncated := c.TruncateWordsToWholeSentence(d.input)
 		if d.expected != output {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %q got %q", i, d.expected, output)
@@ -131,7 +98,7 @@ func TestTruncateWordsToWholeSentence(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestTruncateWordsByRune(t *testing.T) {
-	c := newTestContentSpec()
+
 	type test struct {
 		input, expected string
 		max             int
@@ -153,7 +120,9 @@ func TestTruncateWordsByRune(t *testing.T) {
 		{" \nThis is    not a sentence\n ", "This is not", 3, true},
 	}
 	for i, d := range data {
-		c.summaryLength = d.max
+		cfg := config.New()
+		cfg.Set("summaryLength", d.max)
+		c := newTestContentSpec(cfg)
 		output, truncated := c.TruncateWordsByRune(strings.Fields(d.input))
 		if d.expected != output {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %q got %q", i, d.expected, output)
@@ -168,7 +137,7 @@ func TestTruncateWordsByRune(t *testing.T) {
 func TestExtractTOCNormalContent(t *testing.T) {
 	content := []byte("<nav>\n<ul>\nTOC<li><a href=\"#")
 
-	actualTocLessContent, actualToc := ExtractTOC(content)
+	actualTocLessContent, actualToc := helpers.ExtractTOC(content)
 	expectedTocLess := []byte("TOC<li><a href=\"#")
 	expectedToc := []byte("<nav id=\"TableOfContents\">\n<ul>\n")
 
@@ -184,7 +153,7 @@ func TestExtractTOCNormalContent(t *testing.T) {
 func TestExtractTOCGreaterThanSeventy(t *testing.T) {
 	content := []byte("<nav>\n<ul>\nTOC This is a very long content which will definitely be greater than seventy, I promise you that.<li><a href=\"#")
 
-	actualTocLessContent, actualToc := ExtractTOC(content)
+	actualTocLessContent, actualToc := helpers.ExtractTOC(content)
 	// Because the start of Toc is greater than 70+startpoint of <li> content and empty TOC will be returned
 	expectedToc := []byte("")
 
@@ -200,7 +169,7 @@ func TestExtractTOCGreaterThanSeventy(t *testing.T) {
 func TestExtractNoTOC(t *testing.T) {
 	content := []byte("TOC")
 
-	actualTocLessContent, actualToc := ExtractTOC(content)
+	actualTocLessContent, actualToc := helpers.ExtractTOC(content)
 	expectedToc := []byte("")
 
 	if !bytes.Equal(actualTocLessContent, content) {
@@ -225,7 +194,7 @@ func TestTotalWords(t *testing.T) {
 		{"One, Two,      Three", 3},
 		{totalWordsBenchmarkString, 400},
 	} {
-		actualWordCount := TotalWords(this.s)
+		actualWordCount := helpers.TotalWords(this.s)
 
 		if actualWordCount != this.words {
 			t.Errorf("[%d] Actual word count (%d) for test string (%s) did not match %d", i, actualWordCount, this.s, this.words)
@@ -236,7 +205,7 @@ func TestTotalWords(t *testing.T) {
 func BenchmarkTotalWords(b *testing.B) {
 	b.ResetTimer()
 	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-		wordCount := TotalWords(totalWordsBenchmarkString)
+		wordCount := helpers.TotalWords(totalWordsBenchmarkString)
 		if wordCount != 400 {
 			b.Fatal("Wordcount error")
 		}
diff --git a/helpers/general.go b/helpers/general.go
index 920376227..e8d8bdecc 100644
--- a/helpers/general.go
+++ b/helpers/general.go
@@ -43,20 +43,6 @@ import (
 // FilePathSeparator as defined by os.Separator.
 const FilePathSeparator = string(filepath.Separator)
 
-// FindAvailablePort returns an available and valid TCP port.
-func FindAvailablePort() (*net.TCPAddr, error) {
-	l, err := net.Listen("tcp", ":0")
-	if err == nil {
-		defer l.Close()
-		addr := l.Addr()
-		if a, ok := addr.(*net.TCPAddr); ok {
-			return a, nil
-		}
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to obtain a valid tcp port: %v", addr)
-	}
-	return nil, err
-}
-
 // TCPListen starts listening on a valid TCP port.
 func TCPListen() (net.Listener, *net.TCPAddr, error) {
 	l, err := net.Listen("tcp", ":0")
diff --git a/helpers/general_test.go b/helpers/general_test.go
index b2ee03f15..9b2e4fc58 100644
--- a/helpers/general_test.go
+++ b/helpers/general_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package helpers
+package helpers_test
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
@@ -21,17 +21,14 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
 func TestResolveMarkup(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	spec, err := NewContentSpec(cfg, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	spec := newTestContentSpec(nil)
 
 	for i, this := range []struct {
 		in     string
@@ -61,7 +58,7 @@ func TestResolveMarkup(t *testing.T) {
 func TestDistinctLoggerDoesNotLockOnWarningPanic(t *testing.T) {
 	// Testing to make sure logger mutex doesn't lock if warnings cause panics.
 	// func Warnf() of DistinctLogger is defined in general.go
-	l := NewDistinctLogger(loggers.NewWarningLogger())
+	l := helpers.NewDistinctLogger(loggers.NewWarningLogger())
 
 	// Set PanicOnWarning to true to reproduce issue 9380
 	// Ensure global variable loggers.PanicOnWarning is reset to old value after test
@@ -123,7 +120,7 @@ func TestFirstUpper(t *testing.T) {
 		{"", ""},
 		{"å", "Å"},
 	} {
-		result := FirstUpper(this.in)
+		result := helpers.FirstUpper(this.in)
 		if result != this.expect {
 			t.Errorf("[%d] got %s but expected %s", i, result, this.expect)
 		}
@@ -143,7 +140,7 @@ func TestHasStringsPrefix(t *testing.T) {
 		{[]string{"abra", "ca", "dabra"}, []string{"abra", "ca"}, true},
 		{[]string{"abra", "ca"}, []string{"abra", "ca", "dabra"}, false},
 	} {
-		result := HasStringsPrefix(this.s, this.prefix)
+		result := helpers.HasStringsPrefix(this.s, this.prefix)
 		if result != this.expect {
 			t.Fatalf("[%d] got %t but expected %t", i, result, this.expect)
 		}
@@ -162,7 +159,7 @@ func TestHasStringsSuffix(t *testing.T) {
 		{[]string{"abra", "ca", "dabra"}, []string{"abra", "ca"}, false},
 		{[]string{"abra", "ca", "dabra"}, []string{"ca", "dabra"}, true},
 	} {
-		result := HasStringsSuffix(this.s, this.suffix)
+		result := helpers.HasStringsSuffix(this.s, this.suffix)
 		if result != this.expect {
 			t.Fatalf("[%d] got %t but expected %t", i, result, this.expect)
 		}
@@ -239,7 +236,7 @@ func TestSliceToLower(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		res := SliceToLower(test.value)
+		res := helpers.SliceToLower(test.value)
 		for i, val := range res {
 			if val != test.expected[i] {
 				t.Errorf("Case mismatch. Expected %s, got %s", test.expected[i], res[i])
@@ -251,34 +248,34 @@ func TestSliceToLower(t *testing.T) {
 func TestReaderContains(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	for i, this := range append(containsBenchTestData, containsAdditionalTestData...) {
-		result := ReaderContains(strings.NewReader(this.v1), this.v2)
+		result := helpers.ReaderContains(strings.NewReader(this.v1), this.v2)
 		if result != this.expect {
 			t.Errorf("[%d] got %t but expected %t", i, result, this.expect)
 		}
 	}
 
-	c.Assert(ReaderContains(nil, []byte("a")), qt.Equals, false)
-	c.Assert(ReaderContains(nil, nil), qt.Equals, false)
+	c.Assert(helpers.ReaderContains(nil, []byte("a")), qt.Equals, false)
+	c.Assert(helpers.ReaderContains(nil, nil), qt.Equals, false)
 }
 
 func TestGetTitleFunc(t *testing.T) {
 	title := "somewhere over the rainbow"
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	c.Assert(GetTitleFunc("go")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over The Rainbow")
-	c.Assert(GetTitleFunc("chicago")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere over the Rainbow")
-	c.Assert(GetTitleFunc("Chicago")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere over the Rainbow")
-	c.Assert(GetTitleFunc("ap")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
-	c.Assert(GetTitleFunc("ap")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
-	c.Assert(GetTitleFunc("")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
-	c.Assert(GetTitleFunc("unknown")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
+	c.Assert(helpers.GetTitleFunc("go")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over The Rainbow")
+	c.Assert(helpers.GetTitleFunc("chicago")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere over the Rainbow")
+	c.Assert(helpers.GetTitleFunc("Chicago")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere over the Rainbow")
+	c.Assert(helpers.GetTitleFunc("ap")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
+	c.Assert(helpers.GetTitleFunc("ap")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
+	c.Assert(helpers.GetTitleFunc("")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
+	c.Assert(helpers.GetTitleFunc("unknown")(title), qt.Equals, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow")
 }
 
 func BenchmarkReaderContains(b *testing.B) {
 	b.ResetTimer()
 	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 		for i, this := range containsBenchTestData {
-			result := ReaderContains(strings.NewReader(this.v1), this.v2)
+			result := helpers.ReaderContains(strings.NewReader(this.v1), this.v2)
 			if result != this.expect {
 				b.Errorf("[%d] got %t but expected %t", i, result, this.expect)
 			}
@@ -288,7 +285,7 @@ func BenchmarkReaderContains(b *testing.B) {
 
 func TestUniqueStrings(t *testing.T) {
 	in := []string{"a", "b", "a", "b", "c", "", "a", "", "d"}
-	output := UniqueStrings(in)
+	output := helpers.UniqueStrings(in)
 	expected := []string{"a", "b", "c", "", "d"}
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(output, expected) {
 		t.Errorf("Expected %#v, got %#v\n", expected, output)
@@ -297,7 +294,7 @@ func TestUniqueStrings(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestUniqueStringsReuse(t *testing.T) {
 	in := []string{"a", "b", "a", "b", "c", "", "a", "", "d"}
-	output := UniqueStringsReuse(in)
+	output := helpers.UniqueStringsReuse(in)
 	expected := []string{"a", "b", "c", "", "d"}
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(output, expected) {
 		t.Errorf("Expected %#v, got %#v\n", expected, output)
@@ -307,18 +304,10 @@ func TestUniqueStringsReuse(t *testing.T) {
 func TestUniqueStringsSorted(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	in := []string{"a", "a", "b", "c", "b", "", "a", "", "d"}
-	output := UniqueStringsSorted(in)
+	output := helpers.UniqueStringsSorted(in)
 	expected := []string{"", "a", "b", "c", "d"}
 	c.Assert(output, qt.DeepEquals, expected)
-	c.Assert(UniqueStringsSorted(nil), qt.IsNil)
-}
-
-func TestFindAvailablePort(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	addr, err := FindAvailablePort()
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(addr, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(addr.Port > 0, qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(helpers.UniqueStringsSorted(nil), qt.IsNil)
 }
 
 func TestFastMD5FromFile(t *testing.T) {
@@ -357,23 +346,23 @@ func TestFastMD5FromFile(t *testing.T) {
 	defer bf1.Close()
 	defer bf2.Close()
 
-	m1, err := MD5FromFileFast(sf1)
+	m1, err := helpers.MD5FromFileFast(sf1)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(m1, qt.Equals, "e9c8989b64b71a88b4efb66ad05eea96")
 
-	m2, err := MD5FromFileFast(sf2)
+	m2, err := helpers.MD5FromFileFast(sf2)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(m2, qt.Not(qt.Equals), m1)
 
-	m3, err := MD5FromFileFast(bf1)
+	m3, err := helpers.MD5FromFileFast(bf1)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(m3, qt.Not(qt.Equals), m2)
 
-	m4, err := MD5FromFileFast(bf2)
+	m4, err := helpers.MD5FromFileFast(bf2)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(m4, qt.Not(qt.Equals), m3)
 
-	m5, err := MD5FromReader(bf2)
+	m5, err := helpers.MD5FromReader(bf2)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(m5, qt.Not(qt.Equals), m4)
 }
@@ -394,11 +383,11 @@ func BenchmarkMD5FromFileFast(b *testing.B) {
 				}
 				b.StartTimer()
 				if full {
-					if _, err := MD5FromReader(f); err != nil {
+					if _, err := helpers.MD5FromReader(f); err != nil {
 						b.Fatal(err)
 					}
 				} else {
-					if _, err := MD5FromFileFast(f); err != nil {
+					if _, err := helpers.MD5FromFileFast(f); err != nil {
 						b.Fatal(err)
 					}
 				}
@@ -413,7 +402,7 @@ func BenchmarkUniqueStrings(b *testing.B) {
 
 	b.Run("Safe", func(b *testing.B) {
 		for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-			result := UniqueStrings(input)
+			result := helpers.UniqueStrings(input)
 			if len(result) != 6 {
 				b.Fatal(fmt.Sprintf("invalid count: %d", len(result)))
 			}
@@ -432,7 +421,7 @@ func BenchmarkUniqueStrings(b *testing.B) {
 		for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 			inputc := inputs[i]
 
-			result := UniqueStringsReuse(inputc)
+			result := helpers.UniqueStringsReuse(inputc)
 			if len(result) != 6 {
 				b.Fatal(fmt.Sprintf("invalid count: %d", len(result)))
 			}
@@ -451,7 +440,7 @@ func BenchmarkUniqueStrings(b *testing.B) {
 		for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 			inputc := inputs[i]
 
-			result := UniqueStringsSorted(inputc)
+			result := helpers.UniqueStringsSorted(inputc)
 			if len(result) != 6 {
 				b.Fatal(fmt.Sprintf("invalid count: %d", len(result)))
 			}
diff --git a/helpers/path.go b/helpers/path.go
index 7bc216ec8..00c541bab 100644
--- a/helpers/path.go
+++ b/helpers/path.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -28,8 +28,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/text"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugio"
@@ -54,7 +52,7 @@ func (p *PathSpec) MakePathsSanitized(paths []string) {
 
 // MakePathSanitized creates a Unicode-sanitized string, with the spaces replaced
 func (p *PathSpec) MakePathSanitized(s string) string {
-	if p.DisablePathToLower {
+	if p.Cfg.DisablePathToLower() {
 		return p.MakePath(s)
 	}
 	return strings.ToLower(p.MakePath(s))
@@ -91,7 +89,7 @@ func ishex(c rune) bool {
 // Hyphens in the original input are maintained.
 // Spaces will be replaced with a single hyphen, and sequential replacement hyphens will be reduced to one.
 func (p *PathSpec) UnicodeSanitize(s string) string {
-	if p.RemovePathAccents {
+	if p.Cfg.RemovePathAccents() {
 		s = text.RemoveAccentsString(s)
 	}
 
@@ -128,7 +126,7 @@ func (p *PathSpec) UnicodeSanitize(s string) string {
 	return string(target)
 }
 
-func makePathRelative(inPath string, possibleDirectories ...string) (string, error) {
+func MakePathRelative(inPath string, possibleDirectories ...string) (string, error) {
 	for _, currentPath := range possibleDirectories {
 		if strings.HasPrefix(inPath, currentPath) {
 			return strings.TrimPrefix(inPath, currentPath), nil
@@ -394,8 +392,8 @@ func OpenFileForWriting(fs afero.Fs, filename string) (afero.File, error) {
 
 // GetCacheDir returns a cache dir from the given filesystem and config.
 // The dir will be created if it does not exist.
-func GetCacheDir(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (string, error) {
-	cacheDir := getCacheDir(cfg)
+func GetCacheDir(fs afero.Fs, cacheDir string) (string, error) {
+	cacheDir = cacheDirDefault(cacheDir)
 	if cacheDir != "" {
 		exists, err := DirExists(cacheDir, fs)
 		if err != nil {
@@ -414,9 +412,8 @@ func GetCacheDir(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (string, error) {
 	return GetTempDir("hugo_cache", fs), nil
 }
 
-func getCacheDir(cfg config.Provider) string {
+func cacheDirDefault(cacheDir string) string {
 	// Always use the cacheDir config if set.
-	cacheDir := cfg.GetString("cacheDir")
 	if len(cacheDir) > 1 {
 		return addTrailingFileSeparator(cacheDir)
 	}
diff --git a/helpers/path_test.go b/helpers/path_test.go
index 1f206a881..85081c5be 100644
--- a/helpers/path_test.go
+++ b/helpers/path_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package helpers
+package helpers_test
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
@@ -24,16 +24,12 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
 func TestMakePath(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
 	tests := []struct {
 		input         string
 		expected      string
@@ -60,13 +56,7 @@ func TestMakePath(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		v := newTestCfg()
-		v.Set("removePathAccents", test.removeAccents)
-
-		l := langs.NewDefaultLanguage(v)
-		p, err := NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewMem(v), l, nil)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
+		p := newTestPathSpec("removePathAccents", test.removeAccents)
 		output := p.MakePath(test.input)
 		if output != test.expected {
 			t.Errorf("Expected %#v, got %#v\n", test.expected, output)
@@ -75,9 +65,7 @@ func TestMakePath(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestMakePathSanitized(t *testing.T) {
-	v := newTestCfg()
-
-	p, _ := NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewMem(v), v, nil)
+	p := newTestPathSpec()
 
 	tests := []struct {
 		input    string
@@ -100,12 +88,7 @@ func TestMakePathSanitized(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestMakePathSanitizedDisablePathToLower(t *testing.T) {
-	v := newTestCfg()
-
-	v.Set("disablePathToLower", true)
-
-	l := langs.NewDefaultLanguage(v)
-	p, _ := NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewMem(v), l, nil)
+	p := newTestPathSpec("disablePathToLower", true)
 
 	tests := []struct {
 		input    string
@@ -138,12 +121,12 @@ func TestMakePathRelative(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for i, d := range data {
-		output, _ := makePathRelative(d.inPath, d.path1, d.path2)
+		output, _ := helpers.MakePathRelative(d.inPath, d.path1, d.path2)
 		if d.output != output {
 			t.Errorf("Test #%d failed. Expected %q got %q", i, d.output, output)
 		}
 	}
-	_, error := makePathRelative("a/b/c.ss", "/a/c", "/d/c", "/e/f")
+	_, error := helpers.MakePathRelative("a/b/c.ss", "/a/c", "/d/c", "/e/f")
 
 	if error == nil {
 		t.Errorf("Test failed, expected error")
@@ -181,7 +164,7 @@ func doTestGetDottedRelativePath(urlFixer func(string) string, t *testing.T) {
 		{"/404.html", "./"},
 	}
 	for i, d := range data {
-		output := GetDottedRelativePath(d.input)
+		output := helpers.GetDottedRelativePath(d.input)
 		if d.expected != output {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %q got %q", i, d.expected, output)
 		}
@@ -198,7 +181,7 @@ func TestMakeTitle(t *testing.T) {
 		{"make_title", "make_title"},
 	}
 	for i, d := range data {
-		output := MakeTitle(d.input)
+		output := helpers.MakeTitle(d.input)
 		if d.expected != output {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %q got %q", i, d.expected, output)
 		}
@@ -219,7 +202,7 @@ func TestDirExists(t *testing.T) {
 		{"./..", true},
 		{"./../", true},
 		{os.TempDir(), true},
-		{os.TempDir() + FilePathSeparator, true},
+		{os.TempDir() + helpers.FilePathSeparator, true},
 		{"/", true},
 		{"/some-really-random-directory-name", false},
 		{"/some/really/random/directory/name", false},
@@ -228,7 +211,7 @@ func TestDirExists(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for i, d := range data {
-		exists, _ := DirExists(filepath.FromSlash(d.input), new(afero.OsFs))
+		exists, _ := helpers.DirExists(filepath.FromSlash(d.input), new(afero.OsFs))
 		if d.expected != exists {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %t got %t", i, d.expected, exists)
 		}
@@ -249,7 +232,7 @@ func TestIsDir(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for i, d := range data {
 
-		exists, _ := IsDir(d.input, new(afero.OsFs))
+		exists, _ := helpers.IsDir(d.input, new(afero.OsFs))
 		if d.expected != exists {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %t got %t", i, d.expected, exists)
 		}
@@ -310,7 +293,7 @@ func TestExists(t *testing.T) {
 		{nonExistentDir, false, nil},
 	}
 	for i, d := range data {
-		exists, err := Exists(d.input, new(afero.OsFs))
+		exists, err := helpers.Exists(d.input, new(afero.OsFs))
 		if d.expectedResult != exists {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected result %t got %t", i, d.expectedResult, exists)
 		}
@@ -341,7 +324,7 @@ func TestAbsPathify(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for i, d := range data {
 		// todo see comment in AbsPathify
-		ps := newTestDefaultPathSpec("workingDir", d.workingDir)
+		ps := newTestPathSpec("workingDir", d.workingDir)
 
 		expected := ps.AbsPathify(d.inPath)
 		if d.expected != expected {
@@ -351,7 +334,7 @@ func TestAbsPathify(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Logf("Running platform specific path tests for %s", runtime.GOOS)
 	if runtime.GOOS == "windows" {
 		for i, d := range windowsData {
-			ps := newTestDefaultPathSpec("workingDir", d.workingDir)
+			ps := newTestPathSpec("workingDir", d.workingDir)
 
 			expected := ps.AbsPathify(d.inPath)
 			if d.expected != expected {
@@ -360,7 +343,7 @@ func TestAbsPathify(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	} else {
 		for i, d := range unixData {
-			ps := newTestDefaultPathSpec("workingDir", d.workingDir)
+			ps := newTestPathSpec("workingDir", d.workingDir)
 
 			expected := ps.AbsPathify(d.inPath)
 			if d.expected != expected {
@@ -383,7 +366,7 @@ func TestExtractAndGroupRootPaths(t *testing.T) {
 	inCopy := make([]string, len(in))
 	copy(inCopy, in)
 
-	result := ExtractAndGroupRootPaths(in)
+	result := helpers.ExtractAndGroupRootPaths(in)
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	c.Assert(fmt.Sprint(result), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("[/a/b/{c,e} /c/d/e]"))
@@ -405,7 +388,7 @@ func TestExtractRootPaths(t *testing.T) {
 	}}
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		output := ExtractRootPaths(test.input)
+		output := helpers.ExtractRootPaths(test.input)
 		if !reflect.DeepEqual(output, test.expected) {
 			t.Errorf("Expected %#v, got %#v\n", test.expected, output)
 		}
@@ -426,7 +409,7 @@ func TestFindCWD(t *testing.T) {
 		// I really don't know a better way to test this function. - SPF 2014.11.04
 	}
 	for i, d := range data {
-		dir, err := FindCWD()
+		dir, err := helpers.FindCWD()
 		if d.expectedDir != dir {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected %q but got %q", i, d.expectedDir, dir)
 		}
@@ -459,7 +442,7 @@ func TestSafeWriteToDisk(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for i, d := range data {
-		e := SafeWriteToDisk(d.filename, reader, new(afero.OsFs))
+		e := helpers.SafeWriteToDisk(d.filename, reader, new(afero.OsFs))
 		if d.expectedErr != nil {
 			if d.expectedErr.Error() != e.Error() {
 				t.Errorf("Test %d failed. Expected error %q but got %q", i, d.expectedErr.Error(), e.Error())
@@ -498,7 +481,7 @@ func TestWriteToDisk(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for i, d := range data {
-		e := WriteToDisk(d.filename, reader, new(afero.OsFs))
+		e := helpers.WriteToDisk(d.filename, reader, new(afero.OsFs))
 		if d.expectedErr != e {
 			t.Errorf("Test %d failed. WriteToDisk Error Expected %q but got %q", i, d.expectedErr, e)
 		}
@@ -515,27 +498,27 @@ func TestWriteToDisk(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestGetTempDir(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := os.TempDir()
-	if FilePathSeparator != dir[len(dir)-1:] {
-		dir = dir + FilePathSeparator
+	if helpers.FilePathSeparator != dir[len(dir)-1:] {
+		dir = dir + helpers.FilePathSeparator
 	}
-	testDir := "hugoTestFolder" + FilePathSeparator
+	testDir := "hugoTestFolder" + helpers.FilePathSeparator
 	tests := []struct {
 		input    string
 		expected string
 	}{
 		{"", dir},
-		{testDir + "  Foo bar  ", dir + testDir + "  Foo bar  " + FilePathSeparator},
-		{testDir + "Foo.Bar/foo_Bar-Foo", dir + testDir + "Foo.Bar/foo_Bar-Foo" + FilePathSeparator},
-		{testDir + "fOO,bar:foo%bAR", dir + testDir + "fOObarfoo%bAR" + FilePathSeparator},
-		{testDir + "fOO,bar:foobAR", dir + testDir + "fOObarfoobAR" + FilePathSeparator},
-		{testDir + "FOo/BaR.html", dir + testDir + "FOo/BaR.html" + FilePathSeparator},
-		{testDir + "трям/трям", dir + testDir + "трям/трям" + FilePathSeparator},
-		{testDir + "은행", dir + testDir + "은행" + FilePathSeparator},
-		{testDir + "Банковский кассир", dir + testDir + "Банковский кассир" + FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "  Foo bar  ", dir + testDir + "  Foo bar  " + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "Foo.Bar/foo_Bar-Foo", dir + testDir + "Foo.Bar/foo_Bar-Foo" + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "fOO,bar:foo%bAR", dir + testDir + "fOObarfoo%bAR" + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "fOO,bar:foobAR", dir + testDir + "fOObarfoobAR" + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "FOo/BaR.html", dir + testDir + "FOo/BaR.html" + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "трям/трям", dir + testDir + "трям/трям" + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "은행", dir + testDir + "은행" + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
+		{testDir + "Банковский кассир", dir + testDir + "Банковский кассир" + helpers.FilePathSeparator},
 	}
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		output := GetTempDir(test.input, new(afero.MemMapFs))
+		output := helpers.GetTempDir(test.input, new(afero.MemMapFs))
 		if output != test.expected {
 			t.Errorf("Expected %#v, got %#v\n", test.expected, output)
 		}
diff --git a/helpers/pathspec.go b/helpers/pathspec.go
index 28b5f71c3..c9bb49038 100644
--- a/helpers/pathspec.go
+++ b/helpers/pathspec.go
@@ -34,17 +34,17 @@ type PathSpec struct {
 	Fs *hugofs.Fs
 
 	// The config provider to use
-	Cfg config.Provider
+	Cfg config.AllProvider
 }
 
 // NewPathSpec creates a new PathSpec from the given filesystems and language.
-func NewPathSpec(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider, logger loggers.Logger) (*PathSpec, error) {
+func NewPathSpec(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.AllProvider, logger loggers.Logger) (*PathSpec, error) {
 	return NewPathSpecWithBaseBaseFsProvided(fs, cfg, logger, nil)
 }
 
 // NewPathSpecWithBaseBaseFsProvided creates a new PathSpec from the given filesystems and language.
 // If an existing BaseFs is provided, parts of that is reused.
-func NewPathSpecWithBaseBaseFsProvided(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider, logger loggers.Logger, baseBaseFs *filesystems.BaseFs) (*PathSpec, error) {
+func NewPathSpecWithBaseBaseFsProvided(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.AllProvider, logger loggers.Logger, baseBaseFs *filesystems.BaseFs) (*PathSpec, error) {
 	p, err := paths.New(fs, cfg)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -69,11 +69,6 @@ func NewPathSpecWithBaseBaseFsProvided(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider, logge
 		ProcessingStats: NewProcessingStats(p.Lang()),
 	}
 
-	basePath := ps.BaseURL.Path()
-	if basePath != "" && basePath != "/" {
-		ps.BasePath = basePath
-	}
-
 	return ps, nil
 }
 
diff --git a/helpers/pathspec_test.go b/helpers/pathspec_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 84448050d..000000000
--- a/helpers/pathspec_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,62 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package helpers
-
-import (
-	"path/filepath"
-	"testing"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-)
-
-func TestNewPathSpecFromConfig(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := newTestCfg()
-	l := langs.NewLanguage("no", v)
-	v.Set("disablePathToLower", true)
-	v.Set("removePathAccents", true)
-	v.Set("uglyURLs", true)
-	v.Set("canonifyURLs", true)
-	v.Set("paginatePath", "side")
-	v.Set("baseURL", "http://base.com/foo")
-	v.Set("themesDir", "thethemes")
-	v.Set("layoutDir", "thelayouts")
-	v.Set("workingDir", "thework")
-	v.Set("staticDir", "thestatic")
-	v.Set("theme", "thetheme")
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
-
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
-	fs.Source.MkdirAll(filepath.FromSlash("thework/thethemes/thetheme"), 0777)
-
-	p, err := NewPathSpec(fs, l, nil)
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(p.CanonifyURLs, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(p.DisablePathToLower, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(p.RemovePathAccents, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(p.UglyURLs, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(p.Language.Lang, qt.Equals, "no")
-	c.Assert(p.PaginatePath, qt.Equals, "side")
-
-	c.Assert(p.BaseURL.String(), qt.Equals, "http://base.com/foo")
-	c.Assert(p.BaseURLString, qt.Equals, "http://base.com/foo")
-	c.Assert(p.BaseURLNoPathString, qt.Equals, "http://base.com")
-
-	c.Assert(p.ThemesDir, qt.Equals, "thethemes")
-	c.Assert(p.WorkingDir, qt.Equals, "thework")
-}
diff --git a/helpers/testhelpers_test.go b/helpers/testhelpers_test.go
index 00be3db25..be8983fdb 100644
--- a/helpers/testhelpers_test.go
+++ b/helpers/testhelpers_test.go
@@ -1,47 +1,47 @@
-package helpers
+package helpers_test
 
 import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
-func newTestPathSpec(fs *hugofs.Fs, v config.Provider) *PathSpec {
-	l := langs.NewDefaultLanguage(v)
-	ps, _ := NewPathSpec(fs, l, nil)
+func newTestPathSpecFromCfgAndLang(cfg config.Provider, lang string) *helpers.PathSpec {
+	mfs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+
+	configs := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(mfs, cfg)
+	var conf config.AllProvider
+	if lang == "" {
+		conf = configs.GetFirstLanguageConfig()
+	} else {
+		conf = configs.GetByLang(lang)
+		if conf == nil {
+			panic("no config for lang " + lang)
+		}
+	}
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(mfs, conf.BaseConfig())
+	ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, conf, loggers.NewErrorLogger())
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
 	return ps
 }
 
-func newTestDefaultPathSpec(configKeyValues ...any) *PathSpec {
-	cfg := newTestCfg()
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(cfg)
-
+func newTestPathSpec(configKeyValues ...any) *helpers.PathSpec {
+	cfg := config.New()
 	for i := 0; i < len(configKeyValues); i += 2 {
 		cfg.Set(configKeyValues[i].(string), configKeyValues[i+1])
 	}
-	return newTestPathSpec(fs, cfg)
-}
-
-func newTestCfg() config.Provider {
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
-	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(v)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-	v.Set("allModules", modules.Modules{mod})
-
-	return v
+	return newTestPathSpecFromCfgAndLang(cfg, "")
 }
 
-func newTestContentSpec() *ContentSpec {
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	spec, err := NewContentSpec(v, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil)
+func newTestContentSpec(cfg config.Provider) *helpers.ContentSpec {
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(fs, cfg)
+	spec, err := helpers.NewContentSpec(conf, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), fs, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
diff --git a/helpers/url.go b/helpers/url.go
index 7cb998ca2..a4c20c6ad 100644
--- a/helpers/url.go
+++ b/helpers/url.go
@@ -71,8 +71,9 @@ func SanitizeURLKeepTrailingSlash(in string) string {
 
 // URLize is similar to MakePath, but with Unicode handling
 // Example:
-//     uri: Vim (text editor)
-//     urlize: vim-text-editor
+//
+//	uri: Vim (text editor)
+//	urlize: vim-text-editor
 func (p *PathSpec) URLize(uri string) string {
 	return p.URLEscape(p.MakePathSanitized(uri))
 }
@@ -141,16 +142,16 @@ func (p *PathSpec) AbsURL(in string, addLanguage bool) string {
 func (p *PathSpec) getBaseURLRoot(path string) string {
 	if strings.HasPrefix(path, "/") {
 		// Treat it as relative to the server root.
-		return p.BaseURLNoPathString
+		return p.Cfg.BaseURL().WithoutPath
 	} else {
 		// Treat it as relative to the baseURL.
-		return p.BaseURLString
+		return p.Cfg.BaseURL().WithPath
 	}
 }
 
 func (p *PathSpec) RelURL(in string, addLanguage bool) string {
 	baseURL := p.getBaseURLRoot(in)
-	canonifyURLs := p.CanonifyURLs
+	canonifyURLs := p.Cfg.CanonifyURLs()
 	if (!strings.HasPrefix(in, baseURL) && strings.HasPrefix(in, "http")) || strings.HasPrefix(in, "//") {
 		return in
 	}
@@ -217,25 +218,3 @@ func (p *PathSpec) PrependBasePath(rel string, isAbs bool) string {
 	}
 	return rel
 }
-
-// URLizeAndPrep applies misc sanitation to the given URL to get it in line
-// with the Hugo standard.
-func (p *PathSpec) URLizeAndPrep(in string) string {
-	return p.URLPrep(p.URLize(in))
-}
-
-// URLPrep applies misc sanitation to the given URL.
-func (p *PathSpec) URLPrep(in string) string {
-	if p.UglyURLs {
-		return paths.Uglify(SanitizeURL(in))
-	}
-	pretty := paths.PrettifyURL(SanitizeURL(in))
-	if path.Ext(pretty) == ".xml" {
-		return pretty
-	}
-	url, err := purell.NormalizeURLString(pretty, purell.FlagAddTrailingSlash)
-	if err != nil {
-		return pretty
-	}
-	return url
-}
diff --git a/helpers/url_test.go b/helpers/url_test.go
index e248036ae..787cdd6e8 100644
--- a/helpers/url_test.go
+++ b/helpers/url_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,21 +11,20 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package helpers
+package helpers_test
 
 import (
+	"fmt"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 )
 
 func TestURLize(t *testing.T) {
-	v := newTestCfg()
-	l := langs.NewDefaultLanguage(v)
-	p, _ := NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewMem(v), l, nil)
+	p := newTestPathSpec()
 
 	tests := []struct {
 		input    string
@@ -61,10 +60,6 @@ func TestAbsURL(t *testing.T) {
 
 func doTestAbsURL(t *testing.T, defaultInSubDir, addLanguage, multilingual bool, lang string) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := newTestCfg()
-	v.Set("multilingual", multilingual)
-	v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
-	v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", defaultInSubDir)
 
 	tests := []struct {
 		input    string
@@ -103,24 +98,42 @@ func doTestAbsURL(t *testing.T, defaultInSubDir, addLanguage, multilingual bool,
 	}
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		v.Set("baseURL", test.baseURL)
-		v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-		l := langs.NewLanguage(lang, v)
-		p, _ := NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewMem(v), l, nil)
-
-		output := p.AbsURL(test.input, addLanguage)
-		expected := test.expected
-		if multilingual && addLanguage {
-			if !defaultInSubDir && lang == "en" {
-				expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
+		c.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%v/%t-%t-%t/%s", test, defaultInSubDir, addLanguage, multilingual, lang), func(c *qt.C) {
+			v := config.New()
+			if multilingual {
+				v.Set("languages", map[string]any{
+					"fr": map[string]interface{}{
+						"weight": 20,
+					},
+					"en": map[string]interface{}{
+						"weight": 10,
+					},
+				})
+			}
+			v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
+			v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", defaultInSubDir)
+			v.Set("baseURL", test.baseURL)
+
+			var configLang string
+			if multilingual {
+				configLang = lang
+			}
+			p := newTestPathSpecFromCfgAndLang(v, configLang)
+
+			output := p.AbsURL(test.input, addLanguage)
+			expected := test.expected
+			if multilingual && addLanguage {
+				if !defaultInSubDir && lang == "en" {
+					expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
+				} else {
+					expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", lang+"/", 1)
+				}
 			} else {
-				expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", lang+"/", 1)
+				expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
 			}
-		} else {
-			expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
-		}
 
-		c.Assert(output, qt.Equals, expected)
+			c.Assert(output, qt.Equals, expected)
+		})
 	}
 }
 
@@ -137,9 +150,19 @@ func TestRelURL(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func doTestRelURL(t *testing.T, defaultInSubDir, addLanguage, multilingual bool, lang string) {
+	t.Helper()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := newTestCfg()
-	v.Set("multilingual", multilingual)
+	v := config.New()
+	if multilingual {
+		v.Set("languages", map[string]any{
+			"fr": map[string]interface{}{
+				"weight": 20,
+			},
+			"en": map[string]interface{}{
+				"weight": 10,
+			},
+		})
+	}
 	v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
 	v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", defaultInSubDir)
 
@@ -182,25 +205,31 @@ func doTestRelURL(t *testing.T, defaultInSubDir, addLanguage, multilingual bool,
 	}
 
 	for i, test := range tests {
-		v.Set("baseURL", test.baseURL)
-		v.Set("canonifyURLs", test.canonify)
-		l := langs.NewLanguage(lang, v)
-		p, _ := NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewMem(v), l, nil)
+		c.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%v/%t%t%t/%s", test, defaultInSubDir, addLanguage, multilingual, lang), func(c *qt.C) {
 
-		output := p.RelURL(test.input, addLanguage)
+			v.Set("baseURL", test.baseURL)
+			v.Set("canonifyURLs", test.canonify)
+			var configLang string
+			if multilingual {
+				configLang = lang
+			}
+			p := newTestPathSpecFromCfgAndLang(v, configLang)
 
-		expected := test.expected
-		if multilingual && addLanguage {
-			if !defaultInSubDir && lang == "en" {
-				expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
+			output := p.RelURL(test.input, addLanguage)
+
+			expected := test.expected
+			if multilingual && addLanguage {
+				if !defaultInSubDir && lang == "en" {
+					expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
+				} else {
+					expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "/"+lang, 1)
+				}
 			} else {
-				expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "/"+lang, 1)
+				expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
 			}
-		} else {
-			expected = strings.Replace(expected, "MULTI", "", 1)
-		}
 
-		c.Assert(output, qt.Equals, expected, qt.Commentf("[%d] %s", i, test.input))
+			c.Assert(output, qt.Equals, expected, qt.Commentf("[%d] %s", i, test.input))
+		})
 
 	}
 }
@@ -216,8 +245,8 @@ func TestSanitizeURL(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for i, test := range tests {
-		o1 := SanitizeURL(test.input)
-		o2 := SanitizeURLKeepTrailingSlash(test.input)
+		o1 := helpers.SanitizeURL(test.input)
+		o2 := helpers.SanitizeURLKeepTrailingSlash(test.input)
 
 		expected2 := test.expected
 
@@ -233,28 +262,3 @@ func TestSanitizeURL(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 }
-
-func TestURLPrep(t *testing.T) {
-	type test struct {
-		ugly   bool
-		input  string
-		output string
-	}
-
-	data := []test{
-		{false, "/section/name.html", "/section/name/"},
-		{true, "/section/name/index.html", "/section/name.html"},
-	}
-
-	for i, d := range data {
-		v := newTestCfg()
-		v.Set("uglyURLs", d.ugly)
-		l := langs.NewDefaultLanguage(v)
-		p, _ := NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewMem(v), l, nil)
-
-		output := p.URLPrep(d.input)
-		if d.output != output {
-			t.Errorf("Test #%d failed. Expected %q got %q", i, d.output, output)
-		}
-	}
-}
diff --git a/hugofs/fs.go b/hugofs/fs.go
index 51bbe0619..855a821df 100644
--- a/hugofs/fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/fs.go
@@ -62,39 +62,55 @@ type Fs struct {
 
 // NewDefault creates a new Fs with the OS file system
 // as source and destination file systems.
-func NewDefault(cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
+func NewDefault(conf config.BaseConfig) *Fs {
 	fs := Os
-	return newFs(fs, fs, cfg)
+	return NewFrom(fs, conf)
 }
 
-// NewMem creates a new Fs with the MemMapFs
-// as source and destination file systems.
-// Useful for testing.
-func NewMem(cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
-	fs := &afero.MemMapFs{}
-	return newFs(fs, fs, cfg)
+func NewDefaultOld(cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
+	workingDir, publishDir := getWorkingPublishDir(cfg)
+	fs := Os
+	return newFs(fs, fs, workingDir, publishDir)
 }
 
 // NewFrom creates a new Fs based on the provided Afero Fs
 // as source and destination file systems.
 // Useful for testing.
-func NewFrom(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
-	return newFs(fs, fs, cfg)
+func NewFrom(fs afero.Fs, conf config.BaseConfig) *Fs {
+	return newFs(fs, fs, conf.WorkingDir, conf.PublishDir)
+}
+
+func NewFromOld(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
+	workingDir, publishDir := getWorkingPublishDir(cfg)
+	return newFs(fs, fs, workingDir, publishDir)
 }
 
 // NewFrom creates a new Fs based on the provided Afero Fss
 // as the source and destination file systems.
 func NewFromSourceAndDestination(source, destination afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
-	return newFs(source, destination, cfg)
+	workingDir, publishDir := getWorkingPublishDir(cfg)
+	return newFs(source, destination, workingDir, publishDir)
 }
 
-func newFs(source, destination afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) *Fs {
+func getWorkingPublishDir(cfg config.Provider) (string, string) {
 	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-	publishDir := cfg.GetString("publishDir")
+	publishDir := cfg.GetString("publishDirDynamic")
+	if publishDir == "" {
+		publishDir = cfg.GetString("publishDir")
+	}
+	return workingDir, publishDir
+
+}
+
+func newFs(source, destination afero.Fs, workingDir, publishDir string) *Fs {
 	if publishDir == "" {
 		panic("publishDir is empty")
 	}
 
+	if workingDir == "." {
+		workingDir = ""
+	}
+
 	// Sanity check
 	if IsOsFs(source) && len(workingDir) < 2 {
 		panic("workingDir is too short")
@@ -158,6 +174,7 @@ func MakeReadableAndRemoveAllModulePkgDir(fs afero.Fs, dir string) (int, error)
 		}
 		return nil
 	})
+
 	return counter, fs.RemoveAll(dir)
 }
 
diff --git a/hugofs/fs_test.go b/hugofs/fs_test.go
index f7203fac9..509aca62f 100644
--- a/hugofs/fs_test.go
+++ b/hugofs/fs_test.go
@@ -35,9 +35,10 @@ func TestIsOsFs(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestNewDefault(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("workingDir", t.TempDir())
-	f := NewDefault(v)
+	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	f := NewDefaultOld(v)
 
 	c.Assert(f.Source, qt.IsNotNil)
 	c.Assert(f.Source, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.OsFs))
@@ -49,20 +50,3 @@ func TestNewDefault(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.PublishDir), qt.IsTrue)
 	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.Os), qt.IsTrue)
 }
-
-func TestNewMem(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	f := NewMem(v)
-
-	c.Assert(f.Source, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(f.Source, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.MemMapFs))
-	c.Assert(f.PublishDir, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(f.PublishDir, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.BasePathFs))
-	c.Assert(f.Os, hqt.IsSameType, new(afero.OsFs))
-	c.Assert(f.WorkingDirReadOnly, qt.IsNotNil)
-	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.Source), qt.IsFalse)
-	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.WorkingDirReadOnly), qt.IsFalse)
-	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.PublishDir), qt.IsFalse)
-	c.Assert(IsOsFs(f.Os), qt.IsTrue)
-}
diff --git a/hugofs/noop_fs.go b/hugofs/noop_fs.go
index 8e4abbc6b..87f2cc9ff 100644
--- a/hugofs/noop_fs.go
+++ b/hugofs/noop_fs.go
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ type noOpFs struct {
 }
 
 func (fs noOpFs) Create(name string) (afero.File, error) {
-	return nil, errNoOp
+	panic(errNoOp)
 }
 
 func (fs noOpFs) Mkdir(name string, perm os.FileMode) error {
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ func (fs noOpFs) RemoveAll(path string) error {
 }
 
 func (fs noOpFs) Rename(oldname string, newname string) error {
-	return errNoOp
+	panic(errNoOp)
 }
 
 func (fs noOpFs) Stat(name string) (os.FileInfo, error) {
@@ -74,13 +74,13 @@ func (fs noOpFs) Name() string {
 }
 
 func (fs noOpFs) Chmod(name string, mode os.FileMode) error {
-	return errNoOp
+	panic(errNoOp)
 }
 
 func (fs noOpFs) Chtimes(name string, atime time.Time, mtime time.Time) error {
-	return errNoOp
+	panic(errNoOp)
 }
 
 func (fs *noOpFs) Chown(name string, uid int, gid int) error {
-	return errNoOp
+	panic(errNoOp)
 }
diff --git a/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go b/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go
index dda4bed4b..b71462a8d 100644
--- a/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go
+++ b/hugofs/rootmapping_fs_test.go
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestLanguageRootMapping(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
 
 	fs := NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewMemMapFs())
diff --git a/hugolib/alias.go b/hugolib/alias.go
index 071f73d41..1bc0e5424 100644
--- a/hugolib/alias.go
+++ b/hugolib/alias.go
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ func (s *Site) publishDestAlias(allowRoot bool, path, permalink string, outputFo
 		OutputFormat: outputFormat,
 	}
 
-	if s.Info.relativeURLs || s.Info.canonifyURLs {
+	if s.conf.RelativeURLs || s.conf.CanonifyURLs {
 		pd.AbsURLPath = s.absURLPath(targetPath)
 	}
 
diff --git a/hugolib/breaking_changes_test.go b/hugolib/breaking_changes_test.go
index 495baff3e..533205deb 100644
--- a/hugolib/breaking_changes_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/breaking_changes_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2020 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -12,119 +12,3 @@
 // limitations under the License.
 
 package hugolib
-
-import (
-	"fmt"
-	"testing"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-)
-
-func Test073(t *testing.T) {
-	assertDisabledTaxonomyAndTerm := func(b *sitesBuilder, taxonomy, term bool) {
-		b.Assert(b.CheckExists("public/tags/index.html"), qt.Equals, taxonomy)
-		b.Assert(b.CheckExists("public/tags/tag1/index.html"), qt.Equals, term)
-	}
-
-	assertOutputTaxonomyAndTerm := func(b *sitesBuilder, taxonomy, term bool) {
-		b.Assert(b.CheckExists("public/tags/index.json"), qt.Equals, taxonomy)
-		b.Assert(b.CheckExists("public/tags/tag1/index.json"), qt.Equals, term)
-	}
-
-	for _, this := range []struct {
-		name   string
-		config string
-		assert func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder)
-	}{
-		{
-			"Outputs for both taxonomy and taxonomyTerm",
-			`[outputs]
- taxonomy = ["JSON"]
- taxonomyTerm = ["JSON"]
-
-`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-				assertOutputTaxonomyAndTerm(b, true, true)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Outputs for taxonomyTerm",
-			`[outputs]
-taxonomyTerm = ["JSON"]
-
-`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-				assertOutputTaxonomyAndTerm(b, true, false)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Outputs for taxonomy only",
-			`[outputs]
-taxonomy = ["JSON"]
-
-`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-				b.Assert(out, qt.Contains, `ignoreErrors = ["error-output-taxonomy"]`)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Outputs for taxonomy only, ignore error",
-			`
-ignoreErrors = ["error-output-taxonomy"]
-[outputs]
-taxonomy = ["JSON"]
-
-`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-				assertOutputTaxonomyAndTerm(b, true, false)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Disable both taxonomy and taxonomyTerm",
-			`disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "taxonomyTerm"]`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-				assertDisabledTaxonomyAndTerm(b, false, false)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Disable only taxonomyTerm",
-			`disableKinds = ["taxonomyTerm"]`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-				assertDisabledTaxonomyAndTerm(b, false, true)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Disable only taxonomy",
-			`disableKinds = ["taxonomy"]`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-				b.Assert(out, qt.Contains, `ignoreErrors = ["error-disable-taxonomy"]`)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Disable only taxonomy, ignore error",
-			`disableKinds = ["taxonomy"]
-			ignoreErrors = ["error-disable-taxonomy"]`,
-			func(err error, out string, b *sitesBuilder) {
-				b.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-				assertDisabledTaxonomyAndTerm(b, false, true)
-			},
-		},
-	} {
-		t.Run(this.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithConfigFile("toml", this.config)
-			b.WithTemplatesAdded("_default/list.json", "JSON")
-			out, err := captureStdout(func() error {
-				return b.BuildE(BuildCfg{})
-			})
-			fmt.Println(out)
-			this.assert(err, out, b)
-		})
-	}
-}
diff --git a/hugolib/cascade_test.go b/hugolib/cascade_test.go
index dff2082b6..0f607ecb5 100644
--- a/hugolib/cascade_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/cascade_test.go
@@ -159,33 +159,33 @@ func TestCascade(t *testing.T) {
 		b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
 		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
-12|term|categories/cool/_index.md|Cascade Category|cat.png|categories|HTML-|
-12|term|categories/catsect1|catsect1|cat.png|categories|HTML-|
-12|term|categories/funny|funny|cat.png|categories|HTML-|
-12|taxonomy|categories/_index.md|My Categories|cat.png|categories|HTML-|
-32|term|categories/sad/_index.md|Cascade Category|sad.png|categories|HTML-|
-42|term|tags/blue|blue|home.png|tags|HTML-|
-42|taxonomy|tags|Cascade Home|home.png|tags|HTML-|
-42|section|sectnocontent|Cascade Home|home.png|sectnocontent|HTML-|
-42|section|sect3|Cascade Home|home.png|sect3|HTML-|
-42|page|bundle1/index.md|Cascade Home|home.png|page|HTML-|
-42|page|p2.md|Cascade Home|home.png|page|HTML-|
-42|page|sect2/p2.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect2|HTML-|
-42|page|sect3/nofrontmatter.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect3|HTML-|
-42|page|sect3/p1.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect3|HTML-|
-42|page|sectnocontent/p1.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sectnocontent|HTML-|
-42|section|sectnofrontmatter/_index.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sectnofrontmatter|HTML-|
-42|term|tags/green|green|home.png|tags|HTML-|
-42|home|_index.md|Home|home.png|page|HTML-|
-42|page|p1.md|p1|home.png|page|HTML-|
-42|section|sect1/_index.md|Sect1|sect1.png|stype|HTML-|
-42|section|sect1/s1_2/_index.md|Sect1_2|sect1.png|stype|HTML-|
-42|page|sect1/s1_2/p1.md|Sect1_2_p1|sect1.png|stype|HTML-|
-42|page|sect1/s1_2/p2.md|Sect1_2_p2|sect1.png|stype|HTML-|
-42|section|sect2/_index.md|Sect2|home.png|sect2|HTML-|
-42|page|sect2/p1.md|Sect2_p1|home.png|sect2|HTML-|
-52|page|sect4/p1.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect4|RSS-|
-52|section|sect4/_index.md|Sect4|home.png|sect4|RSS-|
+12|term|categories/cool/_index.md|Cascade Category|cat.png|categories|html-|
+12|term|categories/catsect1|catsect1|cat.png|categories|html-|
+12|term|categories/funny|funny|cat.png|categories|html-|
+12|taxonomy|categories/_index.md|My Categories|cat.png|categories|html-|
+32|term|categories/sad/_index.md|Cascade Category|sad.png|categories|html-|
+42|term|tags/blue|blue|home.png|tags|html-|
+42|taxonomy|tags|Cascade Home|home.png|tags|html-|
+42|section|sectnocontent|Cascade Home|home.png|sectnocontent|html-|
+42|section|sect3|Cascade Home|home.png|sect3|html-|
+42|page|bundle1/index.md|Cascade Home|home.png|page|html-|
+42|page|p2.md|Cascade Home|home.png|page|html-|
+42|page|sect2/p2.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect2|html-|
+42|page|sect3/nofrontmatter.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect3|html-|
+42|page|sect3/p1.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect3|html-|
+42|page|sectnocontent/p1.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sectnocontent|html-|
+42|section|sectnofrontmatter/_index.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sectnofrontmatter|html-|
+42|term|tags/green|green|home.png|tags|html-|
+42|home|_index.md|Home|home.png|page|html-|
+42|page|p1.md|p1|home.png|page|html-|
+42|section|sect1/_index.md|Sect1|sect1.png|stype|html-|
+42|section|sect1/s1_2/_index.md|Sect1_2|sect1.png|stype|html-|
+42|page|sect1/s1_2/p1.md|Sect1_2_p1|sect1.png|stype|html-|
+42|page|sect1/s1_2/p2.md|Sect1_2_p2|sect1.png|stype|html-|
+42|section|sect2/_index.md|Sect2|home.png|sect2|html-|
+42|page|sect2/p1.md|Sect2_p1|home.png|sect2|html-|
+52|page|sect4/p1.md|Cascade Home|home.png|sect4|rss-|
+52|section|sect4/_index.md|Sect4|home.png|sect4|rss-|
 `)
 
 		// Check that type set in cascade gets the correct layout.
diff --git a/hugolib/codeowners.go b/hugolib/codeowners.go
index 162ee16ae..c1a6a2b7b 100644
--- a/hugolib/codeowners.go
+++ b/hugolib/codeowners.go
@@ -18,7 +18,6 @@ import (
 	"path"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/hairyhenderson/go-codeowners"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
@@ -52,9 +51,7 @@ func (c *codeownerInfo) forPage(p page.Page) []string {
 	return c.owners.Owners(p.File().Filename())
 }
 
-func newCodeOwners(cfg config.Provider) (*codeownerInfo, error) {
-	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-
+func newCodeOwners(workingDir string) (*codeownerInfo, error) {
 	r, err := findCodeOwnersFile(workingDir)
 	if err != nil || r == nil {
 		return nil, err
diff --git a/hugolib/config.go b/hugolib/config.go
index 059424e85..af3f0647f 100644
--- a/hugolib/config.go
+++ b/hugolib/config.go
@@ -16,526 +16,170 @@ package hugolib
 import (
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-	cpaths "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
-
-	"github.com/gobwas/glob"
-	hglob "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
-
-	"errors"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/privacy"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/services"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
-var ErrNoConfigFile = errors.New("Unable to locate config file or config directory. Perhaps you need to create a new site.\n       Run `hugo help new` for details.\n")
-
-// LoadConfig loads Hugo configuration into a new Viper and then adds
-// a set of defaults.
-func LoadConfig(d ConfigSourceDescriptor, doWithConfig ...func(cfg config.Provider) error) (config.Provider, []string, error) {
-	if d.Environment == "" {
-		d.Environment = hugo.EnvironmentProduction
-	}
-
-	if len(d.Environ) == 0 && !hugo.IsRunningAsTest() {
-		d.Environ = os.Environ()
-	}
-
-	var configFiles []string
-
-	l := configLoader{ConfigSourceDescriptor: d, cfg: config.New()}
-	// Make sure we always do this, even in error situations,
-	// as we have commands (e.g. "hugo mod init") that will
-	// use a partial configuration to do its job.
-	defer l.deleteMergeStrategies()
-
-	names := d.configFilenames()
-
-	if names != nil {
-		for _, name := range names {
-			var filename string
-			filename, err := l.loadConfig(name)
-			if err == nil {
-				configFiles = append(configFiles, filename)
-			} else if err != ErrNoConfigFile {
-				return nil, nil, l.wrapFileError(err, filename)
-			}
-		}
-	} else {
-		for _, name := range config.DefaultConfigNames {
-			var filename string
-			filename, err := l.loadConfig(name)
-			if err == nil {
-				configFiles = append(configFiles, filename)
-				break
-			} else if err != ErrNoConfigFile {
-				return nil, nil, l.wrapFileError(err, filename)
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	if d.AbsConfigDir != "" {
-
-		dcfg, dirnames, err := config.LoadConfigFromDir(l.Fs, d.AbsConfigDir, l.Environment)
-
-		if err == nil {
-			if len(dirnames) > 0 {
-				l.cfg.Set("", dcfg.Get(""))
-				configFiles = append(configFiles, dirnames...)
-			}
-		} else if err != ErrNoConfigFile {
-			if len(dirnames) > 0 {
-				return nil, nil, l.wrapFileError(err, dirnames[0])
-			}
-			return nil, nil, err
-		}
-	}
-
-	if err := l.applyConfigDefaults(); err != nil {
-		return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-	}
-
-	l.cfg.SetDefaultMergeStrategy()
-
-	// We create languages based on the settings, so we need to make sure that
-	// all configuration is loaded/set before doing that.
-	for _, d := range doWithConfig {
-		if err := d(l.cfg); err != nil {
-			return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-		}
-	}
-
-	// Some settings are used before we're done collecting all settings,
-	// so apply OS environment both before and after.
-	if err := l.applyOsEnvOverrides(d.Environ); err != nil {
-		return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-	}
-
-	modulesConfig, err := l.loadModulesConfig()
+// DefaultConfig returns the default configuration.
+func DefaultConfig() *allconfig.Config {
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	all, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: fs})
 	if err != nil {
-		return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-	}
-
-	// Need to run these after the modules are loaded, but before
-	// they are finalized.
-	collectHook := func(m *modules.ModulesConfig) error {
-		// We don't need the merge strategy configuration anymore,
-		// remove it so it doesn't accidentally show up in other settings.
-		l.deleteMergeStrategies()
-
-		if err := l.loadLanguageSettings(nil); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-
-		mods := m.ActiveModules
-
-		// Apply default project mounts.
-		if err := modules.ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(l.cfg, mods[0]); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	_, modulesConfigFiles, modulesCollectErr := l.collectModules(modulesConfig, l.cfg, collectHook)
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	return all.Base
+}
+
+// ExampleConfig returns the some example configuration for documentation.
+func ExampleConfig() (*allconfig.Config, error) {
+	// Apply some example settings for the settings that does not come with a sensible default.
+	configToml := `
+title = 'My Blog'
+baseURL = "https://example.com/"
+disableKinds = ["term", "taxonomy"]
+
+[outputs]
+home = ['html', 'html', 'rss']
+page = ['html']
+
+[imaging]
+bgcolor = '#ffffff'
+hint = 'photo'
+quality = 81
+resamplefilter = 'CatmullRom'
+[imaging.exif]
+disableDate = true
+disableLatLong = true
+excludeFields = 'ColorSpace|Metering'
+
+[params]
+color = 'blue'
+style = 'dark'
+
+
+[languages]
+[languages.ar]
+languagedirection = 'rtl'
+title = 'مدونتي'
+weight = 2
+[languages.en]
+weight = 1
+[languages.fr]
+weight = 2
+[languages.fr.params]
+linkedin = 'https://linkedin.com/fr/whoever'
+color = 'green'
+[[languages.fr.menus.main]]
+name = 'Des produits'
+pageRef = '/products'
+weight = 20
+
+[menus]
+[[menus.main]]
+name = 'Home'
+pageRef = '/'
+weight = 10
+[[menus.main]]
+name = 'Products'
+pageRef = '/products'
+weight = 20
+[[menus.main]]
+name = 'Services'
+pageRef = '/services'
+weight = 30
+
+[deployment]
+order = [".jpg$", ".gif$"]
+[[deployment.targets]]
+name = "mydeployment"
+url = "s3://mybucket?region=us-east-1"
+cloudFrontDistributionID = "mydistributionid"
+[[deployment.matchers]]
+pattern = "^.+\\.(js|css|svg|ttf)$"
+cacheControl = "max-age=31536000, no-transform, public"
+gzip = true
+[[deployment.matchers]]
+pattern = "^.+\\.(png|jpg)$"
+cacheControl = "max-age=31536000, no-transform, public"
+gzip = false
+[[deployment.matchers]]
+pattern = "^sitemap\\.xml$"
+contentType = "application/xml"
+gzip = true
+[[deployment.matchers]]
+pattern = "^.+\\.(html|xml|json)$"
+gzip = true
+
+[permalinks]
+posts = '/posts/:year/:month/:title/'
+
+[taxonomies]
+category = 'categories'
+series = 'series'
+tag = 'tags'
+  
+[module]
+[module.hugoVersion]
+min = '0.80.0'
+[[module.imports]]
+path = "github.com/bep/hugo-mod-misc/dummy-content"
+ignoreconfig = true
+ignoreimports = true
+[[module.mounts]]
+source = "content/blog"
+target = "content"
+
+[minify]
+[minify.tdewolff]
+[minify.tdewolff.json]
+precision = 2
+
+[[cascade]]
+background = 'yosemite.jpg'
+[cascade._target]
+  kind = 'page'
+  path = '/blog/**'
+[[cascade]]
+background = 'goldenbridge.jpg'
+[cascade._target]
+  kind = 'section'
+
+
+`
+
+	goMod := `
+module github.com/bep/mymod
+`
+
+	cfg := config.New()
+
+	tempDir := os.TempDir()
+	cacheDir := filepath.Join(tempDir, "hugocache")
+	if err := os.MkdirAll(cacheDir, 0777); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	cfg.Set("cacheDir", cacheDir)
+	cfg.Set("workingDir", tempDir)
+	defer func() {
+		os.RemoveAll(tempDir)
+	}()
+
+	fs := afero.NewOsFs()
+
+	if err := afero.WriteFile(fs, filepath.Join(tempDir, "hugo.toml"), []byte(configToml), 0644); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	if err := afero.WriteFile(fs, filepath.Join(tempDir, "go.mod"), []byte(goMod), 0644); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	conf, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: fs, Flags: cfg})
 	if err != nil {
-		return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-	}
-
-	configFiles = append(configFiles, modulesConfigFiles...)
-
-	if err := l.applyOsEnvOverrides(d.Environ); err != nil {
-		return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-	}
-
-	if err = l.applyConfigAliases(); err != nil {
-		return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-	}
-
-	if err == nil {
-		err = modulesCollectErr
-	}
-
-	return l.cfg, configFiles, err
-}
-
-// LoadConfigDefault is a convenience method to load the default "hugo.toml" config.
-func LoadConfigDefault(fs afero.Fs) (config.Provider, error) {
-	v, _, err := LoadConfig(ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: fs})
-	return v, err
-}
-
-// ConfigSourceDescriptor describes where to find the config (e.g. config.toml etc.).
-type ConfigSourceDescriptor struct {
-	Fs     afero.Fs
-	Logger loggers.Logger
-
-	// Path to the config file to use, e.g. /my/project/config.toml
-	Filename string
-
-	// The path to the directory to look for configuration. Is used if Filename is not
-	// set or if it is set to a relative filename.
-	Path string
-
-	// The project's working dir. Is used to look for additional theme config.
-	WorkingDir string
-
-	// The (optional) directory for additional configuration files.
-	AbsConfigDir string
-
-	// production, development
-	Environment string
-
-	// Defaults to os.Environ if not set.
-	Environ []string
-}
-
-func (d ConfigSourceDescriptor) configFileDir() string {
-	if d.Path != "" {
-		return d.Path
+		return nil, err
 	}
-	return d.WorkingDir
-}
-
-func (d ConfigSourceDescriptor) configFilenames() []string {
-	if d.Filename == "" {
-		return nil
-	}
-	return strings.Split(d.Filename, ",")
-}
-
-// SiteConfig represents the config in .Site.Config.
-type SiteConfig struct {
-	// This contains all privacy related settings that can be used to
-	// make the YouTube template etc. GDPR compliant.
-	Privacy privacy.Config
-
-	// Services contains config for services such as Google Analytics etc.
-	Services services.Config
-}
-
-type configLoader struct {
-	cfg config.Provider
-	ConfigSourceDescriptor
-}
+	return conf.Base, err
 
-// Handle some legacy values.
-func (l configLoader) applyConfigAliases() error {
-	aliases := []types.KeyValueStr{{Key: "taxonomies", Value: "indexes"}}
-
-	for _, alias := range aliases {
-		if l.cfg.IsSet(alias.Key) {
-			vv := l.cfg.Get(alias.Key)
-			l.cfg.Set(alias.Value, vv)
-		}
-	}
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) applyConfigDefaults() error {
-	defaultSettings := maps.Params{
-		"cleanDestinationDir":                  false,
-		"watch":                                false,
-		"resourceDir":                          "resources",
-		"publishDir":                           "public",
-		"publishDirOrig":                       "public",
-		"themesDir":                            "themes",
-		"buildDrafts":                          false,
-		"buildFuture":                          false,
-		"buildExpired":                         false,
-		"environment":                          hugo.EnvironmentProduction,
-		"uglyURLs":                             false,
-		"verbose":                              false,
-		"ignoreCache":                          false,
-		"canonifyURLs":                         false,
-		"relativeURLs":                         false,
-		"removePathAccents":                    false,
-		"titleCaseStyle":                       "AP",
-		"taxonomies":                           maps.Params{"tag": "tags", "category": "categories"},
-		"permalinks":                           maps.Params{},
-		"sitemap":                              maps.Params{"priority": -1, "filename": "sitemap.xml"},
-		"disableLiveReload":                    false,
-		"pluralizeListTitles":                  true,
-		"forceSyncStatic":                      false,
-		"footnoteAnchorPrefix":                 "",
-		"footnoteReturnLinkContents":           "",
-		"newContentEditor":                     "",
-		"paginate":                             10,
-		"paginatePath":                         "page",
-		"summaryLength":                        70,
-		"rssLimit":                             -1,
-		"sectionPagesMenu":                     "",
-		"disablePathToLower":                   false,
-		"hasCJKLanguage":                       false,
-		"enableEmoji":                          false,
-		"defaultContentLanguage":               "en",
-		"defaultContentLanguageInSubdir":       false,
-		"enableMissingTranslationPlaceholders": false,
-		"enableGitInfo":                        false,
-		"ignoreFiles":                          make([]string, 0),
-		"disableAliases":                       false,
-		"debug":                                false,
-		"disableFastRender":                    false,
-		"timeout":                              "30s",
-		"enableInlineShortcodes":               false,
-	}
-
-	l.cfg.SetDefaults(defaultSettings)
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) applyOsEnvOverrides(environ []string) error {
-	if len(environ) == 0 {
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	const delim = "__env__delim"
-
-	// Extract all that start with the HUGO prefix.
-	// The delimiter is the following rune, usually "_".
-	const hugoEnvPrefix = "HUGO"
-	var hugoEnv []types.KeyValueStr
-	for _, v := range environ {
-		key, val := config.SplitEnvVar(v)
-		if strings.HasPrefix(key, hugoEnvPrefix) {
-			delimiterAndKey := strings.TrimPrefix(key, hugoEnvPrefix)
-			if len(delimiterAndKey) < 2 {
-				continue
-			}
-			// Allow delimiters to be case sensitive.
-			// It turns out there isn't that many allowed special
-			// chars in environment variables when used in Bash and similar,
-			// so variables on the form HUGOxPARAMSxFOO=bar is one option.
-			key := strings.ReplaceAll(delimiterAndKey[1:], delimiterAndKey[:1], delim)
-			key = strings.ToLower(key)
-			hugoEnv = append(hugoEnv, types.KeyValueStr{
-				Key:   key,
-				Value: val,
-			})
-
-		}
-	}
-
-	for _, env := range hugoEnv {
-		existing, nestedKey, owner, err := maps.GetNestedParamFn(env.Key, delim, l.cfg.Get)
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-
-		if existing != nil {
-			val, err := metadecoders.Default.UnmarshalStringTo(env.Value, existing)
-			if err != nil {
-				continue
-			}
-
-			if owner != nil {
-				owner[nestedKey] = val
-			} else {
-				l.cfg.Set(env.Key, val)
-			}
-		} else if nestedKey != "" {
-			owner[nestedKey] = env.Value
-		} else {
-			// The container does not exist yet.
-			l.cfg.Set(strings.ReplaceAll(env.Key, delim, "."), env.Value)
-		}
-	}
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) collectModules(modConfig modules.Config, v1 config.Provider, hookBeforeFinalize func(m *modules.ModulesConfig) error) (modules.Modules, []string, error) {
-	workingDir := l.WorkingDir
-	if workingDir == "" {
-		workingDir = v1.GetString("workingDir")
-	}
-
-	themesDir := cpaths.AbsPathify(l.WorkingDir, v1.GetString("themesDir"))
-
-	var ignoreVendor glob.Glob
-	if s := v1.GetString("ignoreVendorPaths"); s != "" {
-		ignoreVendor, _ = hglob.GetGlob(hglob.NormalizePath(s))
-	}
-
-	filecacheConfigs, err := filecache.DecodeConfig(l.Fs, v1)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, err
-	}
-
-	secConfig, err := security.DecodeConfig(v1)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, err
-	}
-	ex := hexec.New(secConfig)
-
-	v1.Set("filecacheConfigs", filecacheConfigs)
-
-	var configFilenames []string
-
-	hook := func(m *modules.ModulesConfig) error {
-		for _, tc := range m.ActiveModules {
-			if len(tc.ConfigFilenames()) > 0 {
-				if tc.Watch() {
-					configFilenames = append(configFilenames, tc.ConfigFilenames()...)
-				}
-
-				// Merge from theme config into v1 based on configured
-				// merge strategy.
-				v1.Merge("", tc.Cfg().Get(""))
-
-			}
-		}
-
-		if hookBeforeFinalize != nil {
-			return hookBeforeFinalize(m)
-		}
-
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	modulesClient := modules.NewClient(modules.ClientConfig{
-		Fs:                 l.Fs,
-		Logger:             l.Logger,
-		Exec:               ex,
-		HookBeforeFinalize: hook,
-		WorkingDir:         workingDir,
-		ThemesDir:          themesDir,
-		Environment:        l.Environment,
-		CacheDir:           filecacheConfigs.CacheDirModules(),
-		ModuleConfig:       modConfig,
-		IgnoreVendor:       ignoreVendor,
-	})
-
-	v1.Set("modulesClient", modulesClient)
-
-	moduleConfig, err := modulesClient.Collect()
-
-	// Avoid recreating these later.
-	v1.Set("allModules", moduleConfig.ActiveModules)
-
-	// We want to watch these for changes and trigger rebuild on version
-	// changes etc.
-	if moduleConfig.GoModulesFilename != "" {
-
-		configFilenames = append(configFilenames, moduleConfig.GoModulesFilename)
-	}
-
-	if moduleConfig.GoWorkspaceFilename != "" {
-		configFilenames = append(configFilenames, moduleConfig.GoWorkspaceFilename)
-
-	}
-
-	return moduleConfig.ActiveModules, configFilenames, err
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) loadConfig(configName string) (string, error) {
-	baseDir := l.configFileDir()
-	var baseFilename string
-	if filepath.IsAbs(configName) {
-		baseFilename = configName
-	} else {
-		baseFilename = filepath.Join(baseDir, configName)
-	}
-
-	var filename string
-	if cpaths.ExtNoDelimiter(configName) != "" {
-		exists, _ := helpers.Exists(baseFilename, l.Fs)
-		if exists {
-			filename = baseFilename
-		}
-	} else {
-		for _, ext := range config.ValidConfigFileExtensions {
-			filenameToCheck := baseFilename + "." + ext
-			exists, _ := helpers.Exists(filenameToCheck, l.Fs)
-			if exists {
-				filename = filenameToCheck
-				break
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	if filename == "" {
-		return "", ErrNoConfigFile
-	}
-
-	m, err := config.FromFileToMap(l.Fs, filename)
-	if err != nil {
-		return filename, err
-	}
-
-	// Set overwrites keys of the same name, recursively.
-	l.cfg.Set("", m)
-
-	return filename, nil
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) deleteMergeStrategies() {
-	l.cfg.WalkParams(func(params ...config.KeyParams) bool {
-		params[len(params)-1].Params.DeleteMergeStrategy()
-		return false
-	})
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) loadLanguageSettings(oldLangs langs.Languages) error {
-	_, err := langs.LoadLanguageSettings(l.cfg, oldLangs)
-	return err
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) loadModulesConfig() (modules.Config, error) {
-	modConfig, err := modules.DecodeConfig(l.cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return modules.Config{}, err
-	}
-
-	return modConfig, nil
-}
-
-func (configLoader) loadSiteConfig(cfg config.Provider) (scfg SiteConfig, err error) {
-	privacyConfig, err := privacy.DecodeConfig(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return
-	}
-
-	servicesConfig, err := services.DecodeConfig(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return
-	}
-
-	scfg.Privacy = privacyConfig
-	scfg.Services = servicesConfig
-
-	return
-}
-
-func (l configLoader) wrapFileError(err error, filename string) error {
-	fe := herrors.UnwrapFileError(err)
-	if fe != nil {
-		pos := fe.Position()
-		pos.Filename = filename
-		fe.UpdatePosition(pos)
-		return err
-	}
-	return herrors.NewFileErrorFromFile(err, filename, l.Fs, nil)
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/config_test.go b/hugolib/config_test.go
index 37605b4c2..169674acb 100644
--- a/hugolib/config_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/config_test.go
@@ -21,59 +21,241 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-	"github.com/google/go-cmp/cmp"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
+func TestLoadConfigLanguageParamsOverrideIssue10620(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "page", "setion"]
+title = "Base Title"
+staticDir = "mystatic"
+[params]
+[params.comments]
+color = "blue"
+title = "Default Comments Title"
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+title = "English Title"
+[languages.en.params.comments]
+title = "English Comments Title"
+
+
+
+`
+	b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+		IntegrationTestConfig{
+			T:           t,
+			TxtarString: files,
+		},
+	).Build()
+
+	enSite := b.H.Sites[0]
+	b.Assert(enSite.Title(), qt.Equals, "English Title")
+	b.Assert(enSite.Home().Title(), qt.Equals, "English Title")
+	b.Assert(enSite.Params(), qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
+		"comments": maps.Params{
+			"color": "blue",
+			"title": "English Comments Title",
+		},
+	},
+	)
+
+}
+
 func TestLoadConfig(t *testing.T) {
 
-	c := qt.New(t)
+	t.Run("2 languages", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "page", "setion"]
+title = "Base Title"
+staticDir = "mystatic"
+[params]
+p1 = "p1base"
+p2 = "p2base"
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+title = "English Title"
+[languages.en.params]
+myparam = "enParamValue"
+p1 = "p1en"
+weight = 1
+[languages.sv]
+title = "Svensk Title"
+staticDir = "mysvstatic"
+weight = 2
+[languages.sv.params]
+myparam = "svParamValue"
 
-	loadConfig := func(c *qt.C, configContent string, fromDir bool) config.Provider {
-		mm := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-		filename := "config.toml"
-		descriptor := ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: mm}
-		if fromDir {
-			filename = filepath.Join("config", "_default", filename)
-			descriptor.AbsConfigDir = "config"
-		}
-		writeToFs(t, mm, filename, configContent)
-		cfg, _, err := LoadConfig(descriptor)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		return cfg
-	}
 
-	c.Run("Basic", func(c *qt.C) {
-		c.Parallel()
-		// Add a random config variable for testing.
-		// side = page in Norwegian.
-		cfg := loadConfig(c, `PaginatePath = "side"`, false)
-		c.Assert(cfg.GetString("paginatePath"), qt.Equals, "side")
+`
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
+			},
+		).Build()
+
+		enSite := b.H.Sites[0]
+		svSite := b.H.Sites[1]
+		b.Assert(enSite.Title(), qt.Equals, "English Title")
+		b.Assert(enSite.Home().Title(), qt.Equals, "English Title")
+		b.Assert(enSite.Params()["myparam"], qt.Equals, "enParamValue")
+		b.Assert(enSite.Params()["p1"], qt.Equals, "p1en")
+		b.Assert(enSite.Params()["p2"], qt.Equals, "p2base")
+		b.Assert(svSite.Params()["p1"], qt.Equals, "p1base")
+		b.Assert(enSite.conf.StaticDir[0], qt.Equals, "mystatic")
+
+		b.Assert(svSite.Title(), qt.Equals, "Svensk Title")
+		b.Assert(svSite.Home().Title(), qt.Equals, "Svensk Title")
+		b.Assert(svSite.Params()["myparam"], qt.Equals, "svParamValue")
+		b.Assert(svSite.conf.StaticDir[0], qt.Equals, "mysvstatic")
+
 	})
 
-	// Issue #8763
-	for _, fromDir := range []bool{false, true} {
-		testName := "Taxonomy overrides"
-		if fromDir {
-			testName += " from dir"
-		}
-		c.Run(testName, func(c *qt.C) {
-			c.Parallel()
-			cfg := loadConfig(c, `[taxonomies]
-appellation = "appellations"
-vigneron = "vignerons"`, fromDir)
-
-			c.Assert(cfg.Get("taxonomies"), qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
-				"appellation": "appellations",
-				"vigneron":    "vignerons",
-			})
-		})
-	}
+	t.Run("disable default language", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "page", "setion"]
+title = "Base Title"
+defaultContentLanguage = "sv"
+disableLanguages = ["sv"]
+[languages.en]
+weight = 1
+[languages.sv]
+weight = 2
+`
+		b, err := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
+			},
+		).BuildE()
+
+		b.Assert(err, qt.IsNotNil)
+		b.Assert(err.Error(), qt.Contains, "cannot disable default content language")
+
+	})
+
+	t.Run("no internal config from outside", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+[internal]
+running = true
+`
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
+			},
+		).Build()
+
+		b.Assert(b.H.Conf.Running(), qt.Equals, false)
+
+	})
+
+	t.Run("env overrides", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "page", "setion"]
+title = "Base Title"
+[params]
+p1 = "p1base"
+p2 = "p2base"
+[params.pm2]
+pm21 = "pm21base"
+pm22 = "pm22base"
+-- layouts/index.html --
+p1: {{ .Site.Params.p1 }}
+p2: {{ .Site.Params.p2 }}
+pm21: {{ .Site.Params.pm2.pm21 }}
+pm22: {{ .Site.Params.pm2.pm22 }}
+pm31: {{ .Site.Params.pm3.pm31 }}
+
+
+
+`
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
+				Environ:     []string{"HUGO_PARAMS_P2=p2env", "HUGO_PARAMS_PM2_PM21=pm21env", "HUGO_PARAMS_PM3_PM31=pm31env"},
+			},
+		).Build()
+
+		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", "p1: p1base\np2: p2env\npm21: pm21env\npm22: pm22base\npm31: pm31env")
+
+	})
+
+}
+
+func TestLoadConfigThemeLanguage(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	files := `
+-- /hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+defaultContentLanguage = "en"
+defaultContentLanguageInSubdir = true
+theme = "mytheme"
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+title = "English Title"
+weight = 1
+[languages.sv]
+weight = 2
+-- themes/mytheme/hugo.toml --
+[params]
+p1 = "p1base"
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+title = "English Title Theme"
+[languages.en.params]
+p2 = "p2en"
+[languages.en.params.sub]
+sub1 = "sub1en"
+[languages.sv]
+title = "Svensk Title Theme"
+-- layouts/index.html --
+title: {{ .Title }}|
+p1: {{ .Site.Params.p1 }}|
+p2: {{ .Site.Params.p2 }}|
+sub: {{ .Site.Params.sub }}|
+`
+	b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+		IntegrationTestConfig{
+			T:           t,
+			TxtarString: files,
+		},
+	).Build()
+
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/index.html", `
+title: English Title|
+p1: p1base
+p2: p2en
+sub: map[sub1:sub1en]
+`)
+
 }
 
 func TestLoadMultiConfig(t *testing.T) {
@@ -84,7 +266,7 @@ func TestLoadMultiConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	// Add a random config variable for testing.
 	// side = page in Norwegian.
 	configContentBase := `
-	DontChange = "same"
+	Paginate = 32
 	PaginatePath = "side"
 	`
 	configContentSub := `
@@ -96,11 +278,13 @@ func TestLoadMultiConfig(t *testing.T) {
 
 	writeToFs(t, mm, "override.toml", configContentSub)
 
-	cfg, _, err := LoadConfig(ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: mm, Filename: "base.toml,override.toml"})
+	all, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: mm, Filename: "base.toml,override.toml"})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	cfg := all.Base
+
+	c.Assert(cfg.PaginatePath, qt.Equals, "top")
+	c.Assert(cfg.Paginate, qt.Equals, 32)
 
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("paginatePath"), qt.Equals, "top")
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("DontChange"), qt.Equals, "same")
 }
 
 func TestLoadConfigFromThemes(t *testing.T) {
@@ -229,12 +413,9 @@ name = "menu-theme"
 	c.Run("Merge default", func(c *qt.C) {
 		b := buildForStrategy(c, "")
 
-		got := b.Cfg.Get("").(maps.Params)
-
-		// Issue #8866
-		b.Assert(b.Cfg.Get("disableKinds"), qt.IsNil)
+		got := b.Configs.Base
 
-		b.Assert(got["params"], qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
+		b.Assert(got.Params, qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
 			"b": maps.Params{
 				"b1": "b1 main",
 				"c": maps.Params{
@@ -248,100 +429,16 @@ name = "menu-theme"
 			"p1": "p1 main",
 		})
 
-		b.Assert(got["mediatypes"], qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
-			"text/m2": maps.Params{
-				"suffixes": []any{
-					"m2theme",
-				},
-			},
-			"text/m1": maps.Params{
-				"suffixes": []any{
-					"m1main",
-				},
-			},
-		})
-
-		var eq = qt.CmpEquals(
-			cmp.Comparer(func(m1, m2 media.Type) bool {
-				if m1.SubType != m2.SubType {
-					return false
-				}
-				return m1.FirstSuffix == m2.FirstSuffix
-			}),
-		)
-
-		mediaTypes := b.H.Sites[0].mediaTypesConfig
-		m1, _ := mediaTypes.GetByType("text/m1")
-		m2, _ := mediaTypes.GetByType("text/m2")
-
-		b.Assert(got["outputformats"], eq, maps.Params{
-			"o1": maps.Params{
-				"mediatype": m1,
-				"basename":  "o1main",
-			},
-			"o2": maps.Params{
-				"basename":  "o2theme",
-				"mediatype": m2,
-			},
-		})
-
-		b.Assert(got["languages"], qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
-			"en": maps.Params{
-				"languagename": "English",
-				"params": maps.Params{
-					"pl2": "p2-en-theme",
-					"pl1": "p1-en-main",
-				},
-				"menus": maps.Params{
-					"main": []any{
-						map[string]any{
-							"name": "menu-lang-en-main",
-						},
-					},
-					"theme": []any{
-						map[string]any{
-							"name": "menu-lang-en-theme",
-						},
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			"nb": maps.Params{
-				"languagename": "Norsk",
-				"params": maps.Params{
-					"top": "top-nb-theme",
-					"pl1": "p1-nb-main",
-					"pl2": "p2-nb-theme",
-				},
-				"menus": maps.Params{
-					"main": []any{
-						map[string]any{
-							"name": "menu-lang-nb-main",
-						},
-					},
-					"theme": []any{
-						map[string]any{
-							"name": "menu-lang-nb-theme",
-						},
-					},
-					"top": []any{
-						map[string]any{
-							"name": "menu-lang-nb-top",
-						},
-					},
-				},
-			},
-		})
-
-		c.Assert(got["baseurl"], qt.Equals, "https://example.com/")
+		c.Assert(got.BaseURL, qt.Equals, "https://example.com/")
 	})
 
 	c.Run("Merge shallow", func(c *qt.C) {
 		b := buildForStrategy(c, fmt.Sprintf("_merge=%q", "shallow"))
 
-		got := b.Cfg.Get("").(maps.Params)
+		got := b.Configs.Base.Params
 
 		// Shallow merge, only add new keys to params.
-		b.Assert(got["params"], qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
+		b.Assert(got, qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
 			"p1": "p1 main",
 			"b": maps.Params{
 				"b1": "b1 main",
@@ -360,59 +457,13 @@ name = "menu-theme"
 			"[params]\np1 = \"p1 theme\"\n",
 		)
 
-		got := b.Cfg.Get("").(maps.Params)
+		got := b.Configs.Base.Params
 
-		b.Assert(got["params"], qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
+		b.Assert(got, qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
 			"p1": "p1 theme",
 		})
 	})
 
-	c.Run("Merge language no menus or params in project", func(c *qt.C) {
-		b := buildForConfig(
-			c,
-			`
-theme = "test-theme"
-baseURL = "https://example.com/"
-
-[languages]
-[languages.en]
-languageName = "English"
-
-`,
-			`
-[languages]
-[languages.en]
-languageName = "EnglishTheme"
-
-[languages.en.params]
-p1="themep1"
-
-[[languages.en.menus.main]]
-name   = "menu-theme"
-`,
-		)
-
-		got := b.Cfg.Get("").(maps.Params)
-
-		b.Assert(got["languages"], qt.DeepEquals,
-			maps.Params{
-				"en": maps.Params{
-					"languagename": "English",
-					"menus": maps.Params{
-						"main": []any{
-							map[string]any{
-								"name": "menu-theme",
-							},
-						},
-					},
-					"params": maps.Params{
-						"p1": "themep1",
-					},
-				},
-			},
-		)
-	})
-
 	// Issue #8724
 	for _, mergeStrategy := range []string{"none", "shallow"} {
 		c.Run(fmt.Sprintf("Merge with sitemap config in theme, mergestrategy %s", mergeStrategy), func(c *qt.C) {
@@ -428,22 +479,14 @@ name   = "menu-theme"
 				"baseURL=\"http://example.com\"\n"+fmt.Sprintf(smapConfigTempl, "monthly"),
 			)
 
-			got := b.Cfg.Get("").(maps.Params)
+			got := b.Configs.Base
 
 			if mergeStrategy == "none" {
-				b.Assert(got["sitemap"], qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
-					"priority": int(-1),
-					"filename": "sitemap.xml",
-				})
+				b.Assert(got.Sitemap, qt.DeepEquals, config.SitemapConfig{ChangeFreq: "", Priority: -1, Filename: "sitemap.xml"})
 
 				b.AssertFileContent("public/sitemap.xml", "schemas/sitemap")
 			} else {
-				b.Assert(got["sitemap"], qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
-					"priority":   int(-1),
-					"filename":   "sitemap.xml",
-					"changefreq": "monthly",
-				})
-
+				b.Assert(got.Sitemap, qt.DeepEquals, config.SitemapConfig{ChangeFreq: "monthly", Priority: -1, Filename: "sitemap.xml"})
 				b.AssertFileContent("public/sitemap.xml", "<changefreq>monthly</changefreq>")
 			}
 
@@ -494,7 +537,7 @@ t3 = "tv3p"
 
 	b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
-	got := b.Cfg.Get("params").(maps.Params)
+	got := b.Configs.Base.Params
 
 	b.Assert(got, qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
 		"t3": "tv3p",
@@ -523,7 +566,7 @@ privacyEnhanced = true
 	b.WithConfigFile("toml", tomlConfig)
 	b.Build(BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
-	c.Assert(b.H.Sites[0].Info.Config().Privacy.YouTube.PrivacyEnhanced, qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(b.H.Sites[0].Config().Privacy.YouTube.PrivacyEnhanced, qt.Equals, true)
 }
 
 func TestLoadConfigModules(t *testing.T) {
@@ -607,7 +650,7 @@ path="n4"
 
 	b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
-	modulesClient := b.H.Paths.ModulesClient
+	modulesClient := b.H.Configs.ModulesClient
 	var graphb bytes.Buffer
 	modulesClient.Graph(&graphb)
 
@@ -621,142 +664,6 @@ project n4
 	c.Assert(graphb.String(), qt.Equals, expected)
 }
 
-func TestLoadConfigWithOsEnvOverrides(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	baseConfig := `
-
-theme = "mytheme"
-environment = "production"
-enableGitInfo = true
-intSlice = [5,7,9]
-floatSlice = [3.14, 5.19]
-stringSlice = ["a", "b"]
-
-[outputFormats]
-[outputFormats.ofbase]
-mediaType = "text/plain"
-
-[params]
-paramWithNoEnvOverride="nooverride"
-[params.api_config]
-api_key="default_key"
-another_key="default another_key"
-
-[imaging]
-anchor = "smart"
-quality = 75 
-`
-
-	newB := func(t testing.TB) *sitesBuilder {
-		b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithConfigFile("toml", baseConfig)
-
-		b.WithSourceFile("themes/mytheme/config.toml", `
-
-[outputFormats]
-[outputFormats.oftheme]
-mediaType = "text/plain"
-[outputFormats.ofbase]
-mediaType = "application/xml"
-
-[params]
-[params.mytheme_section]
-theme_param="themevalue"
-theme_param_nooverride="nooverride"
-[params.mytheme_section2]
-theme_param="themevalue2"
-
-`)
-
-		return b
-	}
-
-	c.Run("Variations", func(c *qt.C) {
-
-		b := newB(c)
-
-		b.WithEnviron(
-			"HUGO_ENVIRONMENT", "test",
-			"HUGO_NEW", "new", // key not in config.toml
-			"HUGO_ENABLEGITINFO", "false",
-			"HUGO_IMAGING_ANCHOR", "top",
-			"HUGO_IMAGING_RESAMPLEFILTER", "CatmullRom",
-			"HUGO_STRINGSLICE", `["c", "d"]`,
-			"HUGO_INTSLICE", `[5, 8, 9]`,
-			"HUGO_FLOATSLICE", `[5.32]`,
-			// Issue #7829
-			"HUGOxPARAMSxAPI_CONFIGxAPI_KEY", "new_key",
-			// Delimiters are case sensitive.
-			"HUGOxPARAMSxAPI_CONFIGXANOTHER_KEY", "another_key",
-			// Issue #8346
-			"HUGOxPARAMSxMYTHEME_SECTIONxTHEME_PARAM", "themevalue_changed",
-			"HUGOxPARAMSxMYTHEME_SECTION2xTHEME_PARAM", "themevalue2_changed",
-			"HUGO_PARAMS_EMPTY", ``,
-			"HUGO_PARAMS_HTML", `<a target="_blank" />`,
-			// Issue #8618
-			"HUGO_SERVICES_GOOGLEANALYTICS_ID", `gaid`,
-			"HUGO_PARAMS_A_B_C", "abc",
-		)
-
-		b.Build(BuildCfg{})
-
-		cfg := b.H.Cfg
-		s := b.H.Sites[0]
-		scfg := s.siteConfigConfig.Services
-
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("environment"), qt.Equals, "test")
-		c.Assert(cfg.GetBool("enablegitinfo"), qt.Equals, false)
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("new"), qt.Equals, "new")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("imaging.anchor"), qt.Equals, "top")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("imaging.quality"), qt.Equals, int64(75))
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("imaging.resamplefilter"), qt.Equals, "CatmullRom")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("stringSlice"), qt.DeepEquals, []any{"c", "d"})
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("floatSlice"), qt.DeepEquals, []any{5.32})
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("intSlice"), qt.DeepEquals, []any{5, 8, 9})
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.api_config.api_key"), qt.Equals, "new_key")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.api_config.another_key"), qt.Equals, "default another_key")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.mytheme_section.theme_param"), qt.Equals, "themevalue_changed")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.mytheme_section.theme_param_nooverride"), qt.Equals, "nooverride")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.mytheme_section2.theme_param"), qt.Equals, "themevalue2_changed")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.empty"), qt.Equals, ``)
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.html"), qt.Equals, `<a target="_blank" />`)
-
-		params := cfg.Get("params").(maps.Params)
-		c.Assert(params["paramwithnoenvoverride"], qt.Equals, "nooverride")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.paramwithnoenvoverride"), qt.Equals, "nooverride")
-		c.Assert(scfg.GoogleAnalytics.ID, qt.Equals, "gaid")
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("params.a.b"), qt.DeepEquals, maps.Params{
-			"c": "abc",
-		})
-
-		ofBase, _ := s.outputFormatsConfig.GetByName("ofbase")
-		ofTheme, _ := s.outputFormatsConfig.GetByName("oftheme")
-
-		c.Assert(ofBase.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.TextType)
-		c.Assert(ofTheme.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.TextType)
-
-	})
-
-	// Issue #8709
-	c.Run("Set in string", func(c *qt.C) {
-		b := newB(c)
-
-		b.WithEnviron(
-			"HUGO_ENABLEGITINFO", "false",
-			// imaging.anchor is a string, and it's not possible
-			// to set a child attribute.
-			"HUGO_IMAGING_ANCHOR_FOO", "top",
-		)
-
-		b.Build(BuildCfg{})
-
-		cfg := b.H.Cfg
-		c.Assert(cfg.Get("imaging.anchor"), qt.Equals, "smart")
-
-	})
-
-}
-
 func TestInvalidDefaultMarkdownHandler(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
diff --git a/hugolib/configdir_test.go b/hugolib/configdir_test.go
index 7ac3f969d..3ab84c1bd 100644
--- a/hugolib/configdir_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/configdir_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -13,140 +13,43 @@
 
 package hugolib
 
-import (
-	"path/filepath"
-	"testing"
+import "testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
+func TestConfigDir(t *testing.T) {
 
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-)
-
-func TestLoadConfigDir(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	configContent := `
-baseURL = "https://example.org"
-paginagePath = "pag_root"
-
-[languages.en]
-weight = 0
-languageName = "English"
-
-[languages.no]
-weight = 10
-languageName = "FOO"
-
+	files := `
+-- config/_default/params.toml --
+a = "acp1"
+d = "dcp1"
+-- config/_default/config.toml --
 [params]
-p1 = "p1_base"
+a = "ac1"
+b = "bc1"
 
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "page", "setion"]
+ignoreErrors = ["error-missing-instagram-accesstoken"]
+[params]
+a = "a1"
+b = "b1"
+c = "c1"
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Params: {{ site.Params}}
 `
+	b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+		IntegrationTestConfig{
+			T:           t,
+			TxtarString: files,
+		},
+	).Build()
 
-	mm := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-
-	writeToFs(t, mm, "hugo.toml", configContent)
-
-	fb := htesting.NewTestdataBuilder(mm, "config/_default", t)
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
+Params: map[a:acp1 b:bc1 c:c1 d:dcp1]
 
-	fb.Add("config.toml", `paginatePath = "pag_default"`)
 
-	fb.Add("params.yaml", `
-p2: "p2params_default"
-p3: "p3params_default"
-p4: "p4params_default"
 `)
-	fb.Add("menus.toml", `
-[[docs]]
-name = "About Hugo"
-weight = 1
-[[docs]]
-name = "Home"
-weight = 2
-	`)
-
-	fb.Add("menus.no.toml", `
-	[[docs]]
-	name = "Om Hugo"
-	weight = 1
-	`)
-
-	fb.Add("params.no.toml",
-		`
-p3 = "p3params_no_default"
-p4 = "p4params_no_default"`,
-	)
-	fb.Add("languages.no.toml", `languageName = "Norsk_no_default"`)
-
-	fb.Build()
-
-	fb = fb.WithWorkingDir("config/production")
-
-	fb.Add("config.toml", `paginatePath = "pag_production"`)
-
-	fb.Add("params.no.toml", `
-p2 = "p2params_no_production"
-p3 = "p3params_no_production"
-`)
-
-	fb.Build()
-
-	fb = fb.WithWorkingDir("config/development")
-
-	// This is set in all the config.toml variants above, but this will win.
-	fb.Add("config.TOML", `paginatePath = "pag_development"`)
-	// Issue #5646
-	fb.Add("config.toml.swp", `p3 = "paginatePath = "nono"`)
-
-	fb.Add("params.no.toml", `p3 = "p3params_no_development"`)
-	fb.Add("params.toml", `p3 = "p3params_development"`)
-
-	fb.Build()
-
-	cfg, _, err := LoadConfig(ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: mm, Environment: "development", Filename: "hugo.toml", AbsConfigDir: "config"})
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("paginatePath"), qt.Equals, "pag_development") // /config/development/config.toml
-
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetInt("languages.no.weight"), qt.Equals, 10)                          //  /config.toml
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("languages.no.languageName"), qt.Equals, "Norsk_no_default") // /config/_default/languages.no.toml
-
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("params.p1"), qt.Equals, "p1_base")
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("params.p2"), qt.Equals, "p2params_default") // Is in both _default and production
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("params.p3"), qt.Equals, "p3params_development")
-	c.Assert(cfg.GetString("languages.no.params.p3"), qt.Equals, "p3params_no_development")
-
-	c.Assert(len(cfg.Get("menus.docs").([]any)), qt.Equals, 2)
-	noMenus := cfg.Get("languages.no.menus.docs")
-	c.Assert(noMenus, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(len(noMenus.([]any)), qt.Equals, 1)
-}
-
-func TestLoadConfigDirError(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	configContent := `
-baseURL = "https://example.org"
-
-`
-
-	mm := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-
-	writeToFs(t, mm, "hugo.toml", configContent)
-
-	fb := htesting.NewTestdataBuilder(mm, "config/development", t)
-
-	fb.Add("config.toml", `invalid & syntax`).Build()
-
-	_, _, err := LoadConfig(ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: mm, Environment: "development", Filename: "hugo.toml", AbsConfigDir: "config"})
-	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	fe := herrors.UnwrapFileError(err)
-	c.Assert(fe, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(fe.Position().Filename, qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("config/development/config.toml"))
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/content_map.go b/hugolib/content_map.go
index bf77e7f1b..a7f344004 100644
--- a/hugolib/content_map.go
+++ b/hugolib/content_map.go
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ type cmInsertKeyBuilder struct {
 }
 
 func (b cmInsertKeyBuilder) ForPage(s string) *cmInsertKeyBuilder {
-	// fmt.Println("ForPage:", s, "baseKey:", b.baseKey, "key:", b.key)
+	//fmt.Println("ForPage:", s, "baseKey:", b.baseKey, "key:", b.key, "tree:", b.tree.Name)
 	baseKey := b.baseKey
 	b.baseKey = s
 
diff --git a/hugolib/content_map_page.go b/hugolib/content_map_page.go
index 70c5d6a27..1b6fd40e9 100644
--- a/hugolib/content_map_page.go
+++ b/hugolib/content_map_page.go
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) newPageFromContentNode(n *contentNode, parentBucket *pagesMapB
 
 	parseResult, err := pageparser.Parse(
 		r,
-		pageparser.Config{EnableEmoji: s.siteCfg.enableEmoji},
+		pageparser.Config{EnableEmoji: s.conf.EnableEmoji},
 	)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -742,13 +742,11 @@ func (m *pageMaps) AssemblePages() error {
 
 		sw := &sectionWalker{m: pm.contentMap}
 		a := sw.applyAggregates()
-		_, mainSectionsSet := pm.s.s.Info.Params()["mainsections"]
-		if !mainSectionsSet && a.mainSection != "" {
+
+		if a.mainSection != "" && len(pm.s.s.conf.C.MainSections) == 0 {
 			mainSections := []string{strings.TrimRight(a.mainSection, "/")}
-			pm.s.s.Info.Params()["mainSections"] = mainSections
-			pm.s.s.Info.Params()["mainsections"] = mainSections
+			pm.s.s.conf.C.SetMainSections(mainSections)
 		}
-
 		pm.s.lastmod = a.datesAll.Lastmod()
 		if resource.IsZeroDates(pm.s.home) {
 			pm.s.home.m.Dates = a.datesAll
diff --git a/hugolib/datafiles_test.go b/hugolib/datafiles_test.go
index a6bcae944..4fb3d5bdb 100644
--- a/hugolib/datafiles_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/datafiles_test.go
@@ -14,431 +14,43 @@
 package hugolib
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"reflect"
-	"runtime"
 	"testing"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
-func TestDataFromTheme(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
+func TestData(t *testing.T) {
+
+	t.Run("with theme", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
 
-	files := `
--- config.toml --
-[module]
-[[module.imports]]
-path = "mytheme"
+		files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "page", "setion"]
+theme = "mytheme"
 -- data/a.toml --
-d1 = "d1main"
-d2 = "d2main"
+v1 = "a_v1"
+-- data/b.yaml --
+v1: b_v1
+-- data/c/d.yaml --
+v1: c_d_v1
 -- themes/mytheme/data/a.toml --
-d1 = "d1theme"
-d2 = "d2theme"
-d3 = "d3theme"
+v1 = "a_v1_theme"
+-- themes/mytheme/data/d.toml --
+v1 = "d_v1_theme"
 -- layouts/index.html --
-d1: {{ site.Data.a.d1  }}|d2: {{ site.Data.a.d2 }}|d3: {{ site.Data.a.d3  }}
-
+a: {{  site.Data.a.v1 }}|
+b: {{  site.Data.b.v1 }}|
+cd: {{ site.Data.c.d.v1 }}|
+d: {{  site.Data.d.v1 }}|
 `
-
-	b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
-		IntegrationTestConfig{
-			T:           t,
-			TxtarString: files,
-		},
-	).Build()
-
-	b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
-d1: d1main|d2: d2main|d3: d3theme
-	`)
-}
-
-func TestDataDir(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	equivDataDirs := make([]dataDir, 3)
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test/a.json", `{ "b" : { "c1": "red" , "c2": "blue" } }`)
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test/a.yaml", "b:\n  c1: red\n  c2: blue")
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test/a.toml", "[b]\nc1 = \"red\"\nc2 = \"blue\"\n")
-	expected := map[string]any{
-		"test": map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{
-				"b": map[string]any{
-					"c1": "red",
-					"c2": "blue",
-				},
-			},
-		},
-	}
-	doTestEquivalentDataDirs(t, equivDataDirs, expected)
-}
-
-// Unable to enforce equivalency for int values as
-// the JSON, YAML and TOML parsers return
-// float64, int, int64 respectively. They all return
-// float64 for float values though:
-func TestDataDirNumeric(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	equivDataDirs := make([]dataDir, 3)
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test/a.json", `{ "b" : { "c1": 1.7 , "c2": 2.9 } }`)
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test/a.yaml", "b:\n  c1: 1.7\n  c2: 2.9")
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test/a.toml", "[b]\nc1 = 1.7\nc2 = 2.9\n")
-	expected := map[string]any{
-		"test": map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{
-				"b": map[string]any{
-					"c1": 1.7,
-					"c2": 2.9,
-				},
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
 			},
-		},
-	}
-	doTestEquivalentDataDirs(t, equivDataDirs, expected)
-}
-
-func TestDataDirBoolean(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	equivDataDirs := make([]dataDir, 3)
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test/a.json", `{ "b" : { "c1": true , "c2": false } }`)
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test/a.yaml", "b:\n  c1: true\n  c2: false")
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test/a.toml", "[b]\nc1 = true\nc2 = false\n")
-	expected := map[string]any{
-		"test": map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{
-				"b": map[string]any{
-					"c1": true,
-					"c2": false,
-				},
-			},
-		},
-	}
-	doTestEquivalentDataDirs(t, equivDataDirs, expected)
-}
-
-func TestDataDirTwoFiles(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	equivDataDirs := make([]dataDir, 3)
-
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test/foo.json", `{ "bar": "foofoo"  }`)
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test.json", `{ "hello": [ "world", "foo" ] }`)
-
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test/foo.yaml", "bar: foofoo")
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test.yaml", "hello:\n- world\n- foo")
-
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test/foo.toml", "bar = \"foofoo\"")
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test.toml", "hello = [\"world\", \"foo\"]")
-
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"test": map[string]any{
-				"hello": []any{
-					"world",
-					"foo",
-				},
-				"foo": map[string]any{
-					"bar": "foofoo",
-				},
-			},
-		}
-
-	doTestEquivalentDataDirs(t, equivDataDirs, expected)
-}
-
-func TestDataDirOverriddenValue(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	equivDataDirs := make([]dataDir, 3)
-
-	// filepath.Walk walks the files in lexical order, '/' comes before '.'. Simulate this:
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/a.json", `{"a": "1"}`)
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test/v1.json", `{"v1-2": "2"}`)
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test/v2.json", `{"v2": ["2", "3"]}`)
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test.json", `{"v1": "1"}`)
-
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/a.yaml", "a: \"1\"")
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test/v1.yaml", "v1-2: \"2\"")
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test/v2.yaml", "v2:\n- \"2\"\n- \"3\"")
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test.yaml", "v1: \"1\"")
-
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/a.toml", "a = \"1\"")
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test/v1.toml", "v1-2 = \"2\"")
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test/v2.toml", "v2 = [\"2\", \"3\"]")
-	equivDataDirs[2].addSource("data/test.toml", "v1 = \"1\"")
-
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{"a": "1"},
-			"test": map[string]any{
-				"v1": map[string]any{"v1-2": "2"},
-				"v2": map[string]any{"v2": []any{"2", "3"}},
-			},
-		}
-
-	doTestEquivalentDataDirs(t, equivDataDirs, expected)
-}
-
-// Issue #4361, #3890
-func TestDataDirArrayAtTopLevelOfFile(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	equivDataDirs := make([]dataDir, 2)
-
-	equivDataDirs[0].addSource("data/test.json", `[ { "hello": "world" }, { "what": "time" }, { "is": "lunch?" } ]`)
-	equivDataDirs[1].addSource("data/test.yaml", `
-- hello: world
-- what: time
-- is: lunch?
-`)
-
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"test": []any{
-				map[string]any{"hello": "world"},
-				map[string]any{"what": "time"},
-				map[string]any{"is": "lunch?"},
-			},
-		}
-
-	doTestEquivalentDataDirs(t, equivDataDirs, expected)
-}
-
-// Issue #892
-func TestDataDirMultipleSources(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	var dd dataDir
-	dd.addSource("data/test/first.yaml", "bar: 1")
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/test/first.yaml", "bar: 2")
-	dd.addSource("data/test/second.yaml", "tender: 2")
-
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"test": map[string]any{
-				"first": map[string]any{
-					"bar": 1,
-				},
-				"second": map[string]any{
-					"tender": 2,
-				},
-			},
-		}
-
-	doTestDataDir(t, dd, expected,
-		"theme", "mytheme")
-}
-
-// test (and show) the way values from four different sources,
-// including theme data, commingle and override
-func TestDataDirMultipleSourcesCommingled(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	var dd dataDir
-	dd.addSource("data/a.json", `{ "b1" : { "c1": "data/a" }, "b2": "data/a", "b3": ["x", "y", "z"] }`)
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/a.json", `{ "b1": "mytheme/data/a",  "b2": "mytheme/data/a", "b3": "mytheme/data/a" }`)
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/a/b1.json", `{ "c1": "mytheme/data/a/b1", "c2": "mytheme/data/a/b1" }`)
-	dd.addSource("data/a/b1.json", `{ "c1": "data/a/b1" }`)
-
-	// Per handleDataFile() comment:
-	// 1. A theme uses the same key; the main data folder wins
-	// 2. A sub folder uses the same key: the sub folder wins
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{
-				"b1": map[string]any{
-					"c1": "data/a/b1",
-					"c2": "mytheme/data/a/b1",
-				},
-				"b2": "data/a",
-				"b3": []any{"x", "y", "z"},
-			},
-		}
-
-	doTestDataDir(t, dd, expected, "theme", "mytheme")
-}
-
-func TestDataDirCollidingChildArrays(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	var dd dataDir
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/a/b2.json", `["Q", "R", "S"]`)
-	dd.addSource("data/a.json", `{ "b1" : "data/a", "b2" : ["x", "y", "z"] }`)
-	dd.addSource("data/a/b2.json", `["1", "2", "3"]`)
-
-	// Per handleDataFile() comment:
-	// 1. A theme uses the same key; the main data folder wins
-	// 2. A sub folder uses the same key: the sub folder wins
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{
-				"b1": "data/a",
-				"b2": []any{"1", "2", "3"},
-			},
-		}
-
-	doTestDataDir(t, dd, expected, "theme", "mytheme")
-}
-
-func TestDataDirCollidingTopLevelArrays(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	var dd dataDir
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/a/b1.json", `["x", "y", "z"]`)
-	dd.addSource("data/a/b1.json", `["1", "2", "3"]`)
-
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{
-				"b1": []any{"1", "2", "3"},
-			},
-		}
-
-	doTestDataDir(t, dd, expected, "theme", "mytheme")
-}
-
-func TestDataDirCollidingMapsAndArrays(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	var dd dataDir
-	// on
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/a.json", `["1", "2", "3"]`)
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/b.json", `{ "film" : "Logan Lucky" }`)
-	dd.addSource("data/a.json", `{ "music" : "Queen's Rebuke" }`)
-	dd.addSource("data/b.json", `["x", "y", "z"]`)
-
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"a": map[string]any{
-				"music": "Queen's Rebuke",
-			},
-			"b": []any{"x", "y", "z"},
-		}
-
-	doTestDataDir(t, dd, expected, "theme", "mytheme")
-}
-
-// https://discourse.gohugo.io/t/recursive-data-file-parsing/26192
-func TestDataDirNestedDirectories(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	var dd dataDir
-	dd.addSource("themes/mytheme/data/a.json", `["1", "2", "3"]`)
-	dd.addSource("data/test1/20/06/a.json", `{ "artist" : "Michael Brecker" }`)
-	dd.addSource("data/test1/20/05/b.json", `{ "artist" : "Charlie Parker" }`)
-
-	expected :=
-		map[string]any{
-			"a":     []any{"1", "2", "3"},
-			"test1": map[string]any{"20": map[string]any{"05": map[string]any{"b": map[string]any{"artist": "Charlie Parker"}}, "06": map[string]any{"a": map[string]any{"artist": "Michael Brecker"}}}},
-		}
-
-	doTestDataDir(t, dd, expected, "theme", "mytheme")
-}
-
-type dataDir struct {
-	sources [][2]string
-}
-
-func (d *dataDir) addSource(path, content string) {
-	d.sources = append(d.sources, [2]string{path, content})
-}
-
-func doTestEquivalentDataDirs(t *testing.T, equivDataDirs []dataDir, expected any, configKeyValues ...any) {
-	for i, dd := range equivDataDirs {
-		err := doTestDataDirImpl(t, dd, expected, configKeyValues...)
-		if err != "" {
-			t.Errorf("equivDataDirs[%d]: %s", i, err)
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func doTestDataDir(t *testing.T, dd dataDir, expected any, configKeyValues ...any) {
-	err := doTestDataDirImpl(t, dd, expected, configKeyValues...)
-	if err != "" {
-		t.Error(err)
-	}
-}
-
-func doTestDataDirImpl(t *testing.T, dd dataDir, expected any, configKeyValues ...any) (err string) {
-	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
-
-	for i := 0; i < len(configKeyValues); i += 2 {
-		cfg.Set(configKeyValues[i].(string), configKeyValues[i+1])
-	}
-
-	var (
-		logger  = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
-		depsCfg = deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg, Logger: logger}
-	)
-
-	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "dummy.md"), "content")
-	writeSourcesToSource(t, "", fs, dd.sources...)
-
-	expectBuildError := false
-
-	if ok, shouldFail := expected.(bool); ok && shouldFail {
-		expectBuildError = true
-	}
-
-	// trap and report panics as unmarshaling errors so that test suit can complete
-	defer func() {
-		if r := recover(); r != nil {
-			// Capture the stack trace
-			buf := make([]byte, 10000)
-			runtime.Stack(buf, false)
-			t.Errorf("PANIC: %s\n\nStack Trace : %s", r, string(buf))
-		}
-	}()
-
-	s := buildSingleSiteExpected(t, false, expectBuildError, depsCfg, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
-
-	if !expectBuildError && !reflect.DeepEqual(expected, s.h.Data()) {
-		// This disabled code detects the situation described in the WARNING message below.
-		// The situation seems to only occur for TOML data with integer values.
-		// Perhaps the TOML parser returns ints in another type.
-		// Re-enable temporarily to debug fails that should be passing.
-		// Re-enable permanently if reflect.DeepEqual is simply too strict.
-		/*
-			exp := fmt.Sprintf("%#v", expected)
-			got := fmt.Sprintf("%#v", s.Data)
-			if exp == got {
-				t.Logf("WARNING: reflect.DeepEqual returned FALSE for values that appear equal.\n"+
-					"Treating as equal for the purpose of the test, but this maybe should be investigated.\n"+
-					"Expected data:\n%v got\n%v\n\nExpected type structure:\n%#[1]v got\n%#[2]v", expected, s.Data)
-				return
-			}
-		*/
-
-		return fmt.Sprintf("Expected data:\n%v got\n%v\n\nExpected type structure:\n%#[1]v got\n%#[2]v", expected, s.h.Data())
-	}
-
-	return
-}
-
-func TestDataFromShortcode(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	var (
-		cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-		c       = qt.New(t)
-	)
-
-	writeSource(t, fs, "data/hugo.toml", "slogan = \"Hugo Rocks!\"")
-	writeSource(t, fs, "layouts/_default/single.html", `
-* Slogan from template: {{  .Site.Data.hugo.slogan }}
-* {{ .Content }}`)
-	writeSource(t, fs, "layouts/shortcodes/d.html", `{{  .Page.Site.Data.hugo.slogan }}`)
-	writeSource(t, fs, "content/c.md", `---
----
-Slogan from shortcode: {{< d >}}
-`)
-
-	buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+		).Build()
 
-	content := readSource(t, fs, "public/c/index.html")
+		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", "a: a_v1|\nb: b_v1|\ncd: c_d_v1|\nd: d_v1_theme|")
 
-	c.Assert(content, qt.Contains, "Slogan from template: Hugo Rocks!")
-	c.Assert(content, qt.Contains, "Slogan from shortcode: Hugo Rocks!")
+	})
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/dates_test.go b/hugolib/dates_test.go
index 47629fb0a..f6d5d2490 100644
--- a/hugolib/dates_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/dates_test.go
@@ -201,7 +201,7 @@ timeZone = "America/LosAngeles"   # Should be America/Los_Angeles
 
 	err := b.CreateSitesE()
 	b.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	b.Assert(err.Error(), qt.Contains, `failed to load config: invalid timeZone for language "en": unknown time zone America/LosAngeles`)
+	b.Assert(err.Error(), qt.Contains, `invalid timeZone for language "en": unknown time zone America/LosAngeles`)
 }
 
 // Issue 8835
diff --git a/hugolib/embedded_shortcodes_test.go b/hugolib/embedded_shortcodes_test.go
index 1e06494bf..8ff1435b6 100644
--- a/hugolib/embedded_shortcodes_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/embedded_shortcodes_test.go
@@ -14,406 +14,86 @@
 package hugolib
 
 import (
-	"context"
-	"encoding/json"
-	"fmt"
-	"html/template"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/spf13/cast"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
 )
 
-const (
-	testBaseURL = "http://foo/bar"
-)
-
-func TestShortcodeCrossrefs(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	for _, relative := range []bool{true, false} {
-		doTestShortcodeCrossrefs(t, relative)
-	}
-}
-
-func doTestShortcodeCrossrefs(t *testing.T, relative bool) {
-	var (
-		cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-		c       = qt.New(t)
-	)
-
-	cfg.Set("baseURL", testBaseURL)
-
-	var refShortcode string
-	var expectedBase string
-
-	if relative {
-		refShortcode = "relref"
-		expectedBase = "/bar"
-	} else {
-		refShortcode = "ref"
-		expectedBase = testBaseURL
-	}
-
-	path := filepath.FromSlash("blog/post.md")
-	in := fmt.Sprintf(`{{< %s "%s" >}}`, refShortcode, path)
-
-	writeSource(t, fs, "content/"+path, simplePageWithURL+": "+in)
-
-	expected := fmt.Sprintf(`%s/simple/url/`, expectedBase)
-
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
-
-	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
-
-	content, err := s.RegularPages()[0].Content(context.Background())
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	output := cast.ToString(content)
-
-	if !strings.Contains(output, expected) {
-		t.Errorf("Got\n%q\nExpected\n%q", output, expected)
+func TestEmbeddedShortcodes(t *testing.T) {
+	if !htesting.IsCI() {
+		t.Skip("skip on non-CI for now")
 	}
-}
-
-func TestShortcodeHighlight(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	for _, this := range []struct {
-		in, expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			`{{< highlight java >}}
-void do();
-{{< /highlight >}}`,
-			`(?s)<div class="highlight"><pre tabindex="0" style="background-color:#fff;-moz-tab-size:4;-o-tab-size:4;tab-size:4;"><code class="language-java"`,
-		},
-		{
-			`{{< highlight java "style=friendly" >}}
-void do();
-{{< /highlight >}}`,
-			`(?s)<div class="highlight"><pre tabindex="0" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;-moz-tab-size:4;-o-tab-size:4;tab-size:4;"><code class="language-java" data-lang="java">`,
-		},
-	} {
 
-		var (
-			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-		)
-
-		cfg.Set("markup.highlight.style", "bw")
-		cfg.Set("markup.highlight.noClasses", true)
-
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), fmt.Sprintf(`---
-title: Shorty
+	t.Run("with theme", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "page", "setion"]
+ignoreErrors = ["error-missing-instagram-accesstoken"]
+[params]
+foo = "bar"
+-- content/_index.md --
 ---
-%s`, this.in))
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .Content }}`)
-
-		buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
-
-		th.assertFileContentRegexp(filepath.Join("public", "simple", "index.html"), this.expected)
-
-	}
-}
-
-func TestShortcodeFigure(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	for _, this := range []struct {
-		in, expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			`{{< figure src="/img/hugo-logo.png" >}}`,
-			"(?s)<figure>.*?<img src=\"/img/hugo-logo.png\"/>.*?</figure>",
-		},
-		{
-			// set alt
-			`{{< figure src="/img/hugo-logo.png" alt="Hugo logo" >}}`,
-			"(?s)<figure>.*?<img src=\"/img/hugo-logo.png\".+?alt=\"Hugo logo\"/>.*?</figure>",
-		},
-		// set title
-		{
-			`{{< figure src="/img/hugo-logo.png" title="Hugo logo" >}}`,
-			"(?s)<figure>.*?<img src=\"/img/hugo-logo.png\"/>.*?<figcaption>.*?<h4>Hugo logo</h4>.*?</figcaption>.*?</figure>",
-		},
-		// set attr and attrlink
-		{
-			`{{< figure src="/img/hugo-logo.png" attr="Hugo logo" attrlink="/img/hugo-logo.png" >}}`,
-			"(?s)<figure>.*?<img src=\"/img/hugo-logo.png\"/>.*?<figcaption>.*?<p>.*?<a href=\"/img/hugo-logo.png\">.*?Hugo logo.*?</a>.*?</p>.*?</figcaption>.*?</figure>",
-		},
-	} {
-
-		var (
-			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-		)
-
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), fmt.Sprintf(`---
-title: Shorty
+title: "Home"
 ---
-%s`, this.in))
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .Content }}`)
 
-		buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+## Figure
 
-		th.assertFileContentRegexp(filepath.Join("public", "simple", "index.html"), this.expected)
+{{< figure src="image.png" >}}
 
-	}
-}
+## Gist
 
-func TestShortcodeYoutube(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
+{{< gist spf13 7896402 >}}
 
-	for _, this := range []struct {
-		in, expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			`{{< youtube w7Ft2ymGmfc >}}`,
-			"(?s)\n<div style=\".*?\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/w7Ft2ymGmfc\" style=\".*?\" allowfullscreen title=\"YouTube Video\">.*?</iframe>.*?</div>\n",
-		},
-		// set class
-		{
-			`{{< youtube w7Ft2ymGmfc video>}}`,
-			"(?s)\n<div class=\"video\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/w7Ft2ymGmfc\" allowfullscreen title=\"YouTube Video\">.*?</iframe>.*?</div>\n",
-		},
-		// set class and autoplay (using named params)
-		{
-			`{{< youtube id="w7Ft2ymGmfc" class="video" autoplay="true" >}}`,
-			"(?s)\n<div class=\"video\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/w7Ft2ymGmfc\\?autoplay=1\".*?allowfullscreen title=\"YouTube Video\">.*?</iframe>.*?</div>",
-		},
-		// set custom title for accessibility)
-		{
-			`{{< youtube id="w7Ft2ymGmfc" title="A New Hugo Site in Under Two Minutes" >}}`,
-			"(?s)\n<div style=\".*?\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/w7Ft2ymGmfc\" style=\".*?\" allowfullscreen title=\"A New Hugo Site in Under Two Minutes\">.*?</iframe>.*?</div>",
-		},
-	} {
-		var (
-			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-		)
+## Highlight
 
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), fmt.Sprintf(`---
-title: Shorty
----
-%s`, this.in))
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .Content }}`)
+{{< highlight go >}}
+package main
+{{< /highlight >}}
 
-		buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+## Instagram
 
-		th.assertFileContentRegexp(filepath.Join("public", "simple", "index.html"), this.expected)
-	}
-}
+{{< instagram BWNjjyYFxVx >}}
 
-func TestShortcodeVimeo(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
+## Tweet
 
-	for _, this := range []struct {
-		in, expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			`{{< vimeo 146022717 >}}`,
-			"(?s)\n<div style=\".*?\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/146022717\" style=\".*?\" title=\"vimeo video\" webkitallowfullscreen mozallowfullscreen allowfullscreen>.*?</iframe>.*?</div>\n",
-		},
-		// set class
-		{
-			`{{< vimeo 146022717 video >}}`,
-			"(?s)\n<div class=\"video\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/146022717\" title=\"vimeo video\" webkitallowfullscreen mozallowfullscreen allowfullscreen>.*?</iframe>.*?</div>\n",
-		},
-		// set vimeo title
-		{
-			`{{< vimeo 146022717 video my-title >}}`,
-			"(?s)\n<div class=\"video\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/146022717\" title=\"my-title\" webkitallowfullscreen mozallowfullscreen allowfullscreen>.*?</iframe>.*?</div>\n",
-		},
-		// set class (using named params)
-		{
-			`{{< vimeo id="146022717" class="video" >}}`,
-			"(?s)^<div class=\"video\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/146022717\" title=\"vimeo video\" webkitallowfullscreen mozallowfullscreen allowfullscreen>.*?</iframe>.*?</div>",
-		},
-		// set vimeo title (using named params)
-		{
-			`{{< vimeo id="146022717" class="video" title="my vimeo video" >}}`,
-			"(?s)^<div class=\"video\">.*?<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/146022717\" title=\"my vimeo video\" webkitallowfullscreen mozallowfullscreen allowfullscreen>.*?</iframe>.*?</div>",
-		},
-	} {
-		var (
-			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-		)
+{{< tweet user="1626985695280603138" id="877500564405444608" >}}
 
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), fmt.Sprintf(`---
-title: Shorty
----
-%s`, this.in))
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .Content }}`)
+## Vimeo
 
-		buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+{{< vimeo 20097015 >}}
 
-		th.assertFileContentRegexp(filepath.Join("public", "simple", "index.html"), this.expected)
+## YouTube
 
-	}
-}
+{{< youtube PArFPgHrNZM >}}
 
-func TestShortcodeGist(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
+## Param
 
-	for _, this := range []struct {
-		in, expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			`{{< gist spf13 7896402 >}}`,
-			"(?s)^<script type=\"application/javascript\" src=\"https://gist.github.com/spf13/7896402.js\"></script>",
-		},
-		{
-			`{{< gist spf13 7896402 "img.html" >}}`,
-			"(?s)^<script type=\"application/javascript\" src=\"https://gist.github.com/spf13/7896402.js\\?file=img.html\"></script>",
-		},
-	} {
-		var (
-			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-		)
-
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), fmt.Sprintf(`---
-title: Shorty
----
-%s`, this.in))
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .Content }}`)
+Foo: {{< param foo >}}
 
-		buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
-
-		th.assertFileContentRegexp(filepath.Join("public", "simple", "index.html"), this.expected)
-
-	}
-}
-
-func TestShortcodeTweet(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	for i, this := range []struct {
-		privacy            map[string]any
-		in, resp, expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			map[string]any{
-				"twitter": map[string]any{
-					"simple": true,
-				},
-			},
-			`{{< tweet 666616452582129664 >}}`,
-			`{"author_name":"Steve Francia","author_url":"https://twitter.com/spf13","cache_age":"3153600000","height":null,"html":"\u003cblockquote class=\"twitter-tweet\"\u003e\u003cp lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"\u003eHugo 0.15 will have 30%+ faster render times thanks to this commit \u003ca href=\"https://t.co/FfzhM8bNhT\"\u003ehttps://t.co/FfzhM8bNhT\u003c/a\u003e  \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/hashtag/gohugo?src=hash\u0026amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\"\u003e#gohugo\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/hashtag/golang?src=hash\u0026amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\"\u003e#golang\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"https://t.co/ITbMNU2BUf\"\u003ehttps://t.co/ITbMNU2BUf\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026mdash; Steve Francia (@spf13) \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/spf13/status/666616452582129664?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\"\u003eNovember 17, 2015\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cscript async src=\"https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js\" charset=\"utf-8\"\u003e\u003c/script\u003e\n","provider_name":"Twitter","provider_url":"https://twitter.com","type":"rich","url":"https://twitter.com/spf13/status/666616452582129664","version":"1.0","width":550}`,
-			`.twitter-tweet a`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[string]any{
-				"twitter": map[string]any{
-					"simple": false,
-				},
-			},
-			`{{< tweet 666616452582129664 >}}`,
-			`{"author_name":"Steve Francia","author_url":"https://twitter.com/spf13","cache_age":"3153600000","height":null,"html":"\u003cblockquote class=\"twitter-tweet\"\u003e\u003cp lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"\u003eHugo 0.15 will have 30%+ faster render times thanks to this commit \u003ca href=\"https://t.co/FfzhM8bNhT\"\u003ehttps://t.co/FfzhM8bNhT\u003c/a\u003e  \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/hashtag/gohugo?src=hash\u0026amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\"\u003e#gohugo\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/hashtag/golang?src=hash\u0026amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\"\u003e#golang\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"https://t.co/ITbMNU2BUf\"\u003ehttps://t.co/ITbMNU2BUf\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026mdash; Steve Francia (@spf13) \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/spf13/status/666616452582129664?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\"\u003eNovember 17, 2015\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cscript async src=\"https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js\" charset=\"utf-8\"\u003e\u003c/script\u003e\n","provider_name":"Twitter","provider_url":"https://twitter.com","type":"rich","url":"https://twitter.com/spf13/status/666616452582129664","version":"1.0","width":550}`,
-			`(?s)<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Hugo 0.15 will have 30%\+ faster render times thanks to this commit <a href="https://t.co/FfzhM8bNhT">https://t.co/FfzhM8bNhT</a>  <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/gohugo\?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#gohugo</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/golang\?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#golang</a> <a href="https://t.co/ITbMNU2BUf">https://t.co/ITbMNU2BUf</a></p>&mdash; Steve Francia \(@spf13\) <a href="https://twitter.com/spf13/status/666616452582129664\?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">November 17, 2015</a></blockquote>\s*<script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>`,
-		},
-		{
-			map[string]any{
-				"twitter": map[string]any{
-					"simple": false,
-				},
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Content: {{ .Content }}|
+`
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
 			},
-			`{{< tweet user="SanDiegoZoo" id="1453110110599868418" >}}`,
-			`{"author_name":"San Diego Boo 👻 Wildlife Alliance","author_url":"https://twitter.com/sandiegozoo","cache_age":"3153600000","height":null,"html":"\u003cblockquote class=\"twitter-tweet\"\u003e\u003cp lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"\u003eOwl bet you\u0026#39;ll lose this staring contest 🦉 \u003ca href=\"https://t.co/eJh4f2zncC\"\u003epic.twitter.com/eJh4f2zncC\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026mdash; San Diego Boo 👻 Wildlife Alliance (@sandiegozoo) \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/sandiegozoo/status/1453110110599868418?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw\"\u003eOctober 26, 2021\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cscript async src=\"https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js\" charset=\"utf-8\"\u003e\u003c/script\u003e\n","provider_name":"Twitter","provider_url":"https://twitter.com","type":"rich","url":"https://twitter.com/sandiegozoo/status/1453110110599868418","version":"1.0","width":550}`,
-			`(?s)<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Owl bet you&#39;ll lose this staring contest 🦉 <a href="https://t.co/eJh4f2zncC">pic.twitter.com/eJh4f2zncC</a></p>&mdash; San Diego Boo 👻 Wildlife Alliance \(@sandiegozoo\) <a href="https://twitter.com/sandiegozoo/status/1453110110599868418\?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">October 26, 2021</a></blockquote>\s*<script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>`,
-		},
-	} {
-		// overload getJSON to return mock API response from Twitter
-		tweetFuncMap := template.FuncMap{
-			"getJSON": func(urlParts ...any) any {
-				var v any
-				err := json.Unmarshal([]byte(this.resp), &v)
-				if err != nil {
-					t.Fatalf("[%d] unexpected error in json.Unmarshal: %s", i, err)
-					return err
-				}
-				return v
-			},
-		}
-
-		var (
-			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-		)
-
-		cfg.Set("privacy", this.privacy)
-
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), fmt.Sprintf(`---
-title: Shorty
----
-%s`, this.in))
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .Content }}`)
-
-		buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg, OverloadedTemplateFuncs: tweetFuncMap}, BuildCfg{})
-
-		th.assertFileContentRegexp(filepath.Join("public", "simple", "index.html"), this.expected)
-
-	}
-}
-
-func TestShortcodeInstagram(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	for i, this := range []struct {
-		in, hidecaption, resp, expected string
-	}{
-		{
-			`{{< instagram BMokmydjG-M >}}`,
-			`0`,
-			`{"provider_url": "https://www.instagram.com", "media_id": "1380514280986406796_25025320", "author_name": "instagram", "height": null, "thumbnail_url": "https://scontent-amt2-1.cdninstagram.com/t51.2885-15/s640x640/sh0.08/e35/15048135_1880160212214218_7827880881132929024_n.jpg?ig_cache_key=MTM4MDUxNDI4MDk4NjQwNjc5Ng%3D%3D.2", "thumbnail_width": 640, "thumbnail_height": 640, "provider_name": "Instagram", "title": "Today, we\u2019re introducing a few new tools to help you make your story even more fun: Boomerang and mentions. We\u2019re also starting to test links inside some stories.\nBoomerang lets you turn everyday moments into something fun and unexpected. Now you can easily take a Boomerang right inside Instagram. Swipe right from your feed to open the stories camera. A new format picker under the record button lets you select \u201cBoomerang\u201d mode.\nYou can also now share who you\u2019re with or who you\u2019re thinking of by mentioning them in your story. When you add text to your story, type \u201c@\u201d followed by a username and select the person you\u2019d like to mention. Their username will appear underlined in your story. And when someone taps the mention, they'll see a pop-up that takes them to that profile.\nYou may begin to spot \u201cSee More\u201d links at the bottom of some stories. This is a test that lets verified accounts add links so it\u2019s easy to learn more. From your favorite chefs\u2019 recipes to articles from top journalists or concert dates from the musicians you love, tap \u201cSee More\u201d or swipe up to view the link right inside the app.\nTo learn more about today\u2019s updates, check out help.instagram.com.\nThese updates for Instagram Stories are available as part of Instagram version 9.7 available for iOS in the Apple App Store, for Android in Google Play and for Windows 10 in the Windows Store.", "html": "\u003cblockquote class=\"instagram-media\" data-instgrm-captioned data-instgrm-version=\"7\" style=\" background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);\"\u003e\u003cdiv style=\"padding:8px;\"\u003e \u003cdiv style=\" background:#F8F8F8; line-height:0; margin-top:40px; padding:50.0% 0; text-align:center; width:100%;\"\u003e \u003cdiv style=\" background:url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAACwAAAAsCAMAAAApWqozAAAABGdBTUEAALGPC/xhBQAAAAFzUkdCAK7OHOkAAAAMUExURczMzPf399fX1+bm5mzY9AMAAADiSURBVDjLvZXbEsMgCES5/P8/t9FuRVCRmU73JWlzosgSIIZURCjo/ad+EQJJB4Hv8BFt+IDpQoCx1wjOSBFhh2XssxEIYn3ulI/6MNReE07UIWJEv8UEOWDS88LY97kqyTliJKKtuYBbruAyVh5wOHiXmpi5we58Ek028czwyuQdLKPG1Bkb4NnM+VeAnfHqn1k4+GPT6uGQcvu2h2OVuIf/gWUFyy8OWEpdyZSa3aVCqpVoVvzZZ2VTnn2wU8qzVjDDetO90GSy9mVLqtgYSy231MxrY6I2gGqjrTY0L8fxCxfCBbhWrsYYAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC); display:block; height:44px; margin:0 auto -44px; position:relative; top:-22px; width:44px;\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp style=\" margin:8px 0 0 0; padding:0 4px;\"\u003e \u003ca href=\"https://www.instagram.com/p/BMokmydjG-M/\" style=\" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eToday, we\u2019re introducing a few new tools to help you make your story even more fun: Boomerang and mentions. We\u2019re also starting to test links inside some stories. Boomerang lets you turn everyday moments into something fun and unexpected. Now you can easily take a Boomerang right inside Instagram. Swipe right from your feed to open the stories camera. A new format picker under the record button lets you select \u201cBoomerang\u201d mode. You can also now share who you\u2019re with or who you\u2019re thinking of by mentioning them in your story. When you add text to your story, type \u201c@\u201d followed by a username and select the person you\u2019d like to mention. Their username will appear underlined in your story. And when someone taps the mention, they\u0026#39;ll see a pop-up that takes them to that profile. You may begin to spot \u201cSee More\u201d links at the bottom of some stories. This is a test that lets verified accounts add links so it\u2019s easy to learn more. From your favorite chefs\u2019 recipes to articles from top journalists or concert dates from the musicians you love, tap \u201cSee More\u201d or swipe up to view the link right inside the app. To learn more about today\u2019s updates, check out help.instagram.com. These updates for Instagram Stories are available as part of Instagram version 9.7 available for iOS in the Apple App Store, for Android in Google Play and for Windows 10 in the Windows Store.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp style=\" color:#c9c8cd; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; line-height:17px; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:8px; overflow:hidden; padding:8px 0 7px; text-align:center; text-overflow:ellipsis; white-space:nowrap;\"\u003eA photo posted by Instagram (@instagram) on \u003ctime style=\" font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; line-height:17px;\" datetime=\"2016-11-10T15:02:28+00:00\"\u003eNov 10, 2016 at 7:02am PST\u003c/time\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cscript async defer src=\"//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js\"\u003e\u003c/script\u003e", "width": 658, "version": "1.0", "author_url": "https://www.instagram.com/instagram", "author_id": 25025320, "type": "rich"}`,
-			`(?s)<blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-captioned data-instgrm-version="7" .*defer src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script>`,
-		},
-		{
-			`{{< instagram BMokmydjG-M hidecaption >}}`,
-			`1`,
-			`{"provider_url": "https://www.instagram.com", "media_id": "1380514280986406796_25025320", "author_name": "instagram", "height": null, "thumbnail_url": "https://scontent-amt2-1.cdninstagram.com/t51.2885-15/s640x640/sh0.08/e35/15048135_1880160212214218_7827880881132929024_n.jpg?ig_cache_key=MTM4MDUxNDI4MDk4NjQwNjc5Ng%3D%3D.2", "thumbnail_width": 640, "thumbnail_height": 640, "provider_name": "Instagram", "title": "Today, we\u2019re introducing a few new tools to help you make your story even more fun: Boomerang and mentions. We\u2019re also starting to test links inside some stories.\nBoomerang lets you turn everyday moments into something fun and unexpected. Now you can easily take a Boomerang right inside Instagram. Swipe right from your feed to open the stories camera. A new format picker under the record button lets you select \u201cBoomerang\u201d mode.\nYou can also now share who you\u2019re with or who you\u2019re thinking of by mentioning them in your story. When you add text to your story, type \u201c@\u201d followed by a username and select the person you\u2019d like to mention. Their username will appear underlined in your story. And when someone taps the mention, they'll see a pop-up that takes them to that profile.\nYou may begin to spot \u201cSee More\u201d links at the bottom of some stories. This is a test that lets verified accounts add links so it\u2019s easy to learn more. From your favorite chefs\u2019 recipes to articles from top journalists or concert dates from the musicians you love, tap \u201cSee More\u201d or swipe up to view the link right inside the app.\nTo learn more about today\u2019s updates, check out help.instagram.com.\nThese updates for Instagram Stories are available as part of Instagram version 9.7 available for iOS in the Apple App Store, for Android in Google Play and for Windows 10 in the Windows Store.", "html": "\u003cblockquote class=\"instagram-media\" data-instgrm-version=\"7\" style=\" background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);\"\u003e\u003cdiv style=\"padding:8px;\"\u003e \u003cdiv style=\" background:#F8F8F8; line-height:0; margin-top:40px; padding:50.0% 0; text-align:center; width:100%;\"\u003e \u003cdiv style=\" background:url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAACwAAAAsCAMAAAApWqozAAAABGdBTUEAALGPC/xhBQAAAAFzUkdCAK7OHOkAAAAMUExURczMzPf399fX1+bm5mzY9AMAAADiSURBVDjLvZXbEsMgCES5/P8/t9FuRVCRmU73JWlzosgSIIZURCjo/ad+EQJJB4Hv8BFt+IDpQoCx1wjOSBFhh2XssxEIYn3ulI/6MNReE07UIWJEv8UEOWDS88LY97kqyTliJKKtuYBbruAyVh5wOHiXmpi5we58Ek028czwyuQdLKPG1Bkb4NnM+VeAnfHqn1k4+GPT6uGQcvu2h2OVuIf/gWUFyy8OWEpdyZSa3aVCqpVoVvzZZ2VTnn2wU8qzVjDDetO90GSy9mVLqtgYSy231MxrY6I2gGqjrTY0L8fxCxfCBbhWrsYYAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC); display:block; height:44px; margin:0 auto -44px; position:relative; top:-22px; width:44px;\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp style=\" color:#c9c8cd; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; line-height:17px; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:8px; overflow:hidden; padding:8px 0 7px; text-align:center; text-overflow:ellipsis; white-space:nowrap;\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.instagram.com/p/BMokmydjG-M/\" style=\" color:#c9c8cd; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none;\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eA photo posted by Instagram (@instagram)\u003c/a\u003e on \u003ctime style=\" font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; line-height:17px;\" datetime=\"2016-11-10T15:02:28+00:00\"\u003eNov 10, 2016 at 7:02am PST\u003c/time\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cscript async defer src=\"//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js\"\u003e\u003c/script\u003e", "width": 658, "version": "1.0", "author_url": "https://www.instagram.com/instagram", "author_id": 25025320, "type": "rich"}`,
-			`(?s)<blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-version="7" style=" background:#FFF; border:0; .*<script async defer src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script>`,
-		},
-	} {
-		// overload getJSON to return mock API response from Instagram
-		instagramFuncMap := template.FuncMap{
-			"getJSON": func(args ...any) any {
-				headers := args[len(args)-1].(map[string]any)
-				auth := headers["Authorization"]
-				if auth != "Bearer dummytoken" {
-					return fmt.Errorf("invalid access token: %q", auth)
-				}
-				var v any
-				err := json.Unmarshal([]byte(this.resp), &v)
-				if err != nil {
-					return fmt.Errorf("[%d] unexpected error in json.Unmarshal: %s", i, err)
-				}
-				return v
-			},
-		}
-
-		var (
-			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-		)
+		).Build()
 
-		cfg.Set("services.instagram.accessToken", "dummytoken")
+		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
+<figure>
+https://gist.github.com/spf13/7896402.js
+<span style="color:#a6e22e">main</span></span>
+https://t.co/X94FmYDEZJ
+https://www.youtube.com/embed/PArFPgHrNZM
+Foo: bar
 
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), fmt.Sprintf(`---
-title: Shorty
----
-%s`, this.in))
-		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .Content | safeHTML }}`)
 
-		buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg, OverloadedTemplateFuncs: instagramFuncMap}, BuildCfg{})
 
-		th.assertFileContentRegexp(filepath.Join("public", "simple", "index.html"), this.expected)
+`)
 
-	}
+	})
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go
index 377428325..b90111e26 100644
--- a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go
+++ b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs.go
@@ -441,6 +441,8 @@ func WithBaseFs(b *BaseFs) func(*BaseFs) error {
 	}
 }
 
+var counter int
+
 // NewBase builds the filesystems used by Hugo given the paths and options provided.NewBase
 func NewBase(p *paths.Paths, logger loggers.Logger, options ...func(*BaseFs) error) (*BaseFs, error) {
 	fs := p.Fs
@@ -449,14 +451,14 @@ func NewBase(p *paths.Paths, logger loggers.Logger, options ...func(*BaseFs) err
 	}
 
 	publishFs := hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(fs.PublishDir)
-	sourceFs := hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewBasePathFs(fs.Source, p.WorkingDir))
+	sourceFs := hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewBasePathFs(fs.Source, p.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir))
 	publishFsStatic := fs.PublishDirStatic
 
 	var buildMu Lockable
-	if p.Cfg.GetBool("noBuildLock") || htesting.IsTest {
+	if p.Cfg.NoBuildLock() || htesting.IsTest {
 		buildMu = &fakeLockfileMutex{}
 	} else {
-		buildMu = lockedfile.MutexAt(filepath.Join(p.WorkingDir, lockFileBuild))
+		buildMu = lockedfile.MutexAt(filepath.Join(p.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir, lockFileBuild))
 	}
 
 	b := &BaseFs{
@@ -554,7 +556,7 @@ func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) Build() (*SourceFilesystems, error) {
 	contentDirs := b.theBigFs.overlayDirs[files.ComponentFolderContent]
 	contentBfs := afero.NewBasePathFs(b.theBigFs.overlayMountsContent, files.ComponentFolderContent)
 
-	contentFs, err := hugofs.NewLanguageFs(b.p.LanguagesDefaultFirst.AsOrdinalSet(), contentBfs)
+	contentFs, err := hugofs.NewLanguageFs(b.p.Cfg.LanguagesDefaultFirst().AsOrdinalSet(), contentBfs)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("create content filesystem: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -585,9 +587,10 @@ func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) Build() (*SourceFilesystems, error) {
 
 func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) createMainOverlayFs(p *paths.Paths) (*filesystemsCollector, error) {
 	var staticFsMap map[string]*overlayfs.OverlayFs
-	if b.p.Cfg.GetBool("multihost") {
+	if b.p.Cfg.IsMultihost() {
+		languages := b.p.Cfg.Languages()
 		staticFsMap = make(map[string]*overlayfs.OverlayFs)
-		for _, l := range b.p.Languages {
+		for _, l := range languages {
 			staticFsMap[l.Lang] = overlayfs.New(overlayfs.Options{})
 		}
 	}
@@ -605,7 +608,7 @@ func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) createMainOverlayFs(p *paths.Paths) (*filesys
 		overlayResources:     overlayfs.New(overlayfs.Options{FirstWritable: true}),
 	}
 
-	mods := p.AllModules
+	mods := p.AllModules()
 
 	mounts := make([]mountsDescriptor, len(mods))
 
@@ -671,7 +674,6 @@ func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) createOverlayFs(
 		}
 
 		for i, mount := range md.Mounts() {
-
 			// Add more weight to early mounts.
 			// When two mounts contain the same filename,
 			// the first entry wins.
@@ -705,7 +707,7 @@ func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) createOverlayFs(
 
 			lang := mount.Lang
 			if lang == "" && isContentMount {
-				lang = b.p.DefaultContentLanguage
+				lang = b.p.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguage()
 			}
 
 			rm.Meta.Lang = lang
@@ -745,17 +747,15 @@ func (b *sourceFilesystemsBuilder) createOverlayFs(
 		collector.addDirs(rmfsStatic)
 
 		if collector.staticPerLanguage != nil {
-			for _, l := range b.p.Languages {
+			for _, l := range b.p.Cfg.Languages() {
 				lang := l.Lang
 
 				lfs := rmfsStatic.Filter(func(rm hugofs.RootMapping) bool {
 					rlang := rm.Meta.Lang
 					return rlang == "" || rlang == lang
 				})
-
 				bfs := afero.NewBasePathFs(lfs, files.ComponentFolderStatic)
 				collector.staticPerLanguage[lang] = collector.staticPerLanguage[lang].Append(bfs)
-
 			}
 		}
 
diff --git a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go
index a729e63b1..1724f3838 100644
--- a/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/filesystems/basefs_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package filesystems
+package filesystems_test
 
 import (
 	"errors"
@@ -21,63 +21,20 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gobwas/glob"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/filesystems"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/paths"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
 )
 
-func initConfig(fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) error {
-	if _, err := langs.LoadLanguageSettings(cfg, nil); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	modConfig, err := modules.DecodeConfig(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-	themesDir := cfg.GetString("themesDir")
-	if !filepath.IsAbs(themesDir) {
-		themesDir = filepath.Join(workingDir, themesDir)
-	}
-	globAll := glob.MustCompile("**", '/')
-	modulesClient := modules.NewClient(modules.ClientConfig{
-		Fs:           fs,
-		WorkingDir:   workingDir,
-		ThemesDir:    themesDir,
-		ModuleConfig: modConfig,
-		IgnoreVendor: globAll,
-	})
-
-	moduleConfig, err := modulesClient.Collect()
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	if err := modules.ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(cfg, moduleConfig.ActiveModules[0]); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	cfg.Set("allModules", moduleConfig.ActiveModules)
-
-	return nil
-}
-
 func TestNewBaseFs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
+	v := config.New()
 
 	themes := []string{"btheme", "atheme"}
 
@@ -87,6 +44,9 @@ func TestNewBaseFs(t *testing.T) {
 	v.Set("themesDir", "themes")
 	v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
 	v.Set("theme", themes[:1])
+	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
+
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 
 	// Write some data to the themes
 	for _, theme := range themes {
@@ -94,39 +54,39 @@ func TestNewBaseFs(t *testing.T) {
 			base := filepath.Join(workingDir, "themes", theme, dir)
 			filenameTheme := filepath.Join(base, fmt.Sprintf("theme-file-%s.txt", theme))
 			filenameOverlap := filepath.Join(base, "f3.txt")
-			fs.Source.Mkdir(base, 0755)
+			afs.Mkdir(base, 0755)
 			content := []byte(fmt.Sprintf("content:%s:%s", theme, dir))
-			afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filenameTheme, content, 0755)
-			afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filenameOverlap, content, 0755)
+			afero.WriteFile(afs, filenameTheme, content, 0755)
+			afero.WriteFile(afs, filenameOverlap, content, 0755)
 		}
 		// Write some files to the root of the theme
 		base := filepath.Join(workingDir, "themes", theme)
-		afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(base, fmt.Sprintf("theme-root-%s.txt", theme)), []byte(fmt.Sprintf("content:%s", theme)), 0755)
-		afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(base, "file-theme-root.txt"), []byte(fmt.Sprintf("content:%s", theme)), 0755)
+		afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(base, fmt.Sprintf("theme-root-%s.txt", theme)), []byte(fmt.Sprintf("content:%s", theme)), 0755)
+		afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(base, "file-theme-root.txt"), []byte(fmt.Sprintf("content:%s", theme)), 0755)
 	}
 
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(workingDir, "file-root.txt"), []byte("content-project"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(workingDir, "file-root.txt"), []byte("content-project"), 0755)
 
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(workingDir, "themes", "btheme", "config.toml"), []byte(`
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(workingDir, "themes", "btheme", "config.toml"), []byte(`
 theme = ["atheme"]
 `), 0755)
 
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "contentDir", "mycontent", 3)
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "i18nDir", "myi18n", 4)
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "layoutDir", "mylayouts", 5)
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "staticDir", "mystatic", 6)
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "dataDir", "mydata", 7)
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "archetypeDir", "myarchetypes", 8)
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "assetDir", "myassets", 9)
-	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(fs.Source, v, "resourceDir", "myrsesource", 10)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "contentDir", "mycontent", 3)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "i18nDir", "myi18n", 4)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "layoutDir", "mylayouts", 5)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "staticDir", "mystatic", 6)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "dataDir", "mydata", 7)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "archetypeDir", "myarchetypes", 8)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "assetDir", "myassets", 9)
+	setConfigAndWriteSomeFilesTo(afs, v, "resourceDir", "myrsesource", 10)
 
-	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
-	c.Assert(initConfig(fs.Source, v), qt.IsNil)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, conf.BaseConfig())
 
-	p, err := paths.New(fs, v)
+	p, err := paths.New(fs, conf)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	bfs, err := NewBase(p, nil)
+	bfs, err := filesystems.NewBase(p, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(bfs, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
@@ -180,31 +140,14 @@ theme = ["atheme"]
 	}
 }
 
-func createConfig() config.Provider {
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	v.Set("contentDir", "mycontent")
-	v.Set("i18nDir", "myi18n")
-	v.Set("staticDir", "mystatic")
-	v.Set("dataDir", "mydata")
-	v.Set("layoutDir", "mylayouts")
-	v.Set("archetypeDir", "myarchetypes")
-	v.Set("assetDir", "myassets")
-	v.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
-	v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
-
-	return v
-}
-
 func TestNewBaseFsEmpty(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := createConfig()
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
-	c.Assert(initConfig(fs.Source, v), qt.IsNil)
-
-	p, err := paths.New(fs, v)
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, nil)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, conf.BaseConfig())
+	p, err := paths.New(fs, conf)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	bfs, err := NewBase(p, nil)
+	bfs, err := filesystems.NewBase(p, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(bfs, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 	c.Assert(bfs.Archetypes.Fs, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
@@ -218,47 +161,47 @@ func TestNewBaseFsEmpty(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestRealDirs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := createConfig()
+	v := config.New()
 	root, themesDir := t.TempDir(), t.TempDir()
 	v.Set("workingDir", root)
 	v.Set("themesDir", themesDir)
+	v.Set("assetDir", "myassets")
 	v.Set("theme", "mytheme")
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewDefault(v)
-	sfs := fs.Source
+	afs := hugofs.Os
 
 	defer func() {
 		os.RemoveAll(root)
 		os.RemoveAll(themesDir)
 	}()
 
-	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf1"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf3"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "resources"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "resources"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
-
-	c.Assert(sfs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "js", "f2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf1"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf3"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "resources"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "resources"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
 
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf1", "a1.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf2", "a3.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "a2.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf2", "a3.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf3", "a4.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "js", "f2"), 0755), qt.IsNil)
 
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "resources", "t1.txt")), []byte("content"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "resources", "p1.txt")), []byte("content"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "resources", "p2.txt")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf1", "a1.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "sf2", "a3.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "scss", "a2.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf2", "a3.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "assets", "scss", "sf3", "a4.scss")), []byte("content"), 0755)
 
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "js", "f2", "a1.js")), []byte("content"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(sfs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "js", "a2.js")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme", "resources", "t1.txt")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "resources", "p1.txt")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "resources", "p2.txt")), []byte("content"), 0755)
 
-	c.Assert(initConfig(fs.Source, v), qt.IsNil)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "js", "f2", "a1.js")), []byte("content"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(filepath.Join(root, "myassets", "js", "a2.js")), []byte("content"), 0755)
 
-	p, err := paths.New(fs, v)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, conf.BaseConfig())
+	p, err := paths.New(fs, conf)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	bfs, err := NewBase(p, nil)
+	bfs, err := filesystems.NewBase(p, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(bfs, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
@@ -269,45 +212,48 @@ func TestRealDirs(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(realDirs[0], qt.Equals, filepath.Join(root, "myassets/scss"))
 	c.Assert(realDirs[len(realDirs)-1], qt.Equals, filepath.Join(themesDir, "mytheme/assets/scss"))
 
-	c.Assert(bfs.theBigFs, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 }
 
 func TestStaticFs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := createConfig()
+	v := config.New()
 	workDir := "mywork"
 	v.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 	v.Set("themesDir", "themes")
+	v.Set("staticDir", "mystatic")
 	v.Set("theme", []string{"t1", "t2"})
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 
 	themeStaticDir := filepath.Join(workDir, "themes", "t1", "static")
 	themeStaticDir2 := filepath.Join(workDir, "themes", "t2", "static")
 
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(workDir, "mystatic", "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Rocks!"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Rocks!"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f2.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Still Rocks!"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir2, "f2.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Rocks in t2!"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(workDir, "mystatic", "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Rocks!"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Rocks!"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f2.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Still Rocks!"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir2, "f2.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Rocks in t2!"), 0755)
 
-	c.Assert(initConfig(fs.Source, v), qt.IsNil)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, conf.BaseConfig())
+	p, err := paths.New(fs, conf)
 
-	p, err := paths.New(fs, v)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	bfs, err := NewBase(p, nil)
+	bfs, err := filesystems.NewBase(p, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	sfs := bfs.StaticFs("en")
+
 	checkFileContent(sfs, "f1.txt", c, "Hugo Rocks!")
 	checkFileContent(sfs, "f2.txt", c, "Hugo Themes Still Rocks!")
 }
 
 func TestStaticFsMultiHost(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := createConfig()
+	v := config.New()
 	workDir := "mywork"
 	v.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 	v.Set("themesDir", "themes")
+	v.Set("staticDir", "mystatic")
 	v.Set("theme", "t1")
 	v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
 
@@ -323,21 +269,24 @@ func TestStaticFsMultiHost(t *testing.T) {
 
 	v.Set("languages", langConfig)
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 
 	themeStaticDir := filepath.Join(workDir, "themes", "t1", "static")
 
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(workDir, "mystatic", "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Rocks!"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(workDir, "static_no", "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Rocks in Norway!"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(workDir, "mystatic", "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Rocks!"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(workDir, "static_no", "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Rocks in Norway!"), 0755)
+
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Rocks!"), 0755)
+	afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f2.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Still Rocks!"), 0755)
 
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f1.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Rocks!"), 0755)
-	afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join(themeStaticDir, "f2.txt"), []byte("Hugo Themes Still Rocks!"), 0755)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, conf.BaseConfig())
 
-	c.Assert(initConfig(fs.Source, v), qt.IsNil)
+	fmt.Println("IS", conf.IsMultihost())
 
-	p, err := paths.New(fs, v)
+	p, err := paths.New(fs, conf)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	bfs, err := NewBase(p, nil)
+	bfs, err := filesystems.NewBase(p, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	enFs := bfs.StaticFs("en")
 	checkFileContent(enFs, "f1.txt", c, "Hugo Rocks!")
@@ -350,14 +299,14 @@ func TestStaticFsMultiHost(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestMakePathRelative(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := createConfig()
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
+	v := config.New()
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 	workDir := "mywork"
 	v.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 
-	c.Assert(fs.Source.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "dist", "d1"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(fs.Source.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "static", "d2"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(fs.Source.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "dust", "d2"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "dist", "d1"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "static", "d2"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(afs.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "dust", "d2"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
 
 	moduleCfg := map[string]any{
 		"mounts": []any{
@@ -378,11 +327,12 @@ func TestMakePathRelative(t *testing.T) {
 
 	v.Set("module", moduleCfg)
 
-	c.Assert(initConfig(fs.Source, v), qt.IsNil)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, conf.BaseConfig())
 
-	p, err := paths.New(fs, v)
+	p, err := paths.New(fs, conf)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	bfs, err := NewBase(p, nil)
+	bfs, err := filesystems.NewBase(p, nil)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	sfs := bfs.Static[""]
@@ -399,6 +349,7 @@ func TestMakePathRelative(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func checkFileCount(fs afero.Fs, dirname string, c *qt.C, expected int) {
+	c.Helper()
 	count, _, err := countFilesAndGetFilenames(fs, dirname)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(count, qt.Equals, expected)
diff --git a/hugolib/gitinfo.go b/hugolib/gitinfo.go
index d051b10bc..f0c5dfa27 100644
--- a/hugolib/gitinfo.go
+++ b/hugolib/gitinfo.go
@@ -38,8 +38,8 @@ func (g *gitInfo) forPage(p page.Page) source.GitInfo {
 	return source.NewGitInfo(*gi)
 }
 
-func newGitInfo(cfg config.Provider) (*gitInfo, error) {
-	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
+func newGitInfo(conf config.AllProvider) (*gitInfo, error) {
+	workingDir := conf.BaseConfig().WorkingDir
 
 	gitRepo, err := gitmap.Map(workingDir, "")
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go b/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go
index aca3f157c..ee4ef798a 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_modules_test.go
@@ -64,9 +64,10 @@ path="github.com/gohugoio/hugoTestModule2"
 		tempDir := t.TempDir()
 		workingDir := filepath.Join(tempDir, "myhugosite")
 		b.Assert(os.MkdirAll(workingDir, 0777), qt.IsNil)
-		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		cfg := config.New()
 		cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
-		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(cfg)
+		cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefaultOld(cfg)
 		b.WithWorkingDir(workingDir).WithConfigFile("toml", createConfig(workingDir, moduleOpts))
 		b.WithTemplates(
 			"index.html", `
@@ -329,8 +330,9 @@ func TestHugoModulesMatrix(t *testing.T) {
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 		defer clean()
 
-		v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		v := config.New()
 		v.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+		v.Set("publishDir", "public")
 
 		configTemplate := `
 baseURL = "https://example.com"
@@ -350,7 +352,7 @@ ignoreVendorPaths = %q
 		b := newTestSitesBuilder(t)
 
 		// Need to use OS fs for this.
-		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(v)
+		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefaultOld(v)
 
 		b.WithWorkingDir(workingDir).WithConfigFile("toml", config)
 		b.WithContent("page.md", `
@@ -667,9 +669,10 @@ func TestModulesSymlinks(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
 	defer clean()
 
@@ -842,10 +845,11 @@ workingDir = %q
 
 	b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).Running()
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
 
-	b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(cfg)
+	b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefaultOld(cfg)
 
 	b.WithWorkingDir(workingDir).WithConfigFile("toml", tomlConfig)
 	b.WithTemplatesAdded("index.html", `
@@ -967,9 +971,10 @@ workingDir = %q
 
 		b := newTestSitesBuilder(c).Running()
 
-		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		cfg := config.New()
 		cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
-		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefault(cfg)
+		cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+		b.Fs = hugofs.NewDefaultOld(cfg)
 
 		os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workingDir, "content", "blog"), 0777)
 
@@ -1068,9 +1073,10 @@ func TestSiteWithGoModButNoModules(t *testing.T) {
 	workDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-no-mod")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
 	defer clean()
 
@@ -1094,9 +1100,10 @@ func TestModuleAbsMount(t *testing.T) {
 	absContentDir, clean2, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-content")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
 	config := fmt.Sprintf(`
 workingDir=%q
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
index edb925de5..290eebe82 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ import (
 	"sync"
 	"sync/atomic"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
 
 	"github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify"
@@ -34,42 +35,30 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
 
-	"errors"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/para"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/publisher"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/lazy"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs/i18n"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page/pagemeta"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl/tplimpl"
 )
 
 // HugoSites represents the sites to build. Each site represents a language.
 type HugoSites struct {
 	Sites []*Site
 
-	multilingual *Multilingual
+	Configs *allconfig.Configs
 
-	// Multihost is set if multilingual and baseURL set on the language level.
-	multihost bool
-
-	// If this is running in the dev server.
-	running bool
+	hugoInfo hugo.HugoInfo
 
 	// Render output formats for all sites.
 	renderFormats output.Formats
@@ -225,14 +214,6 @@ func (h *HugoSites) codeownersForPage(p page.Page) ([]string, error) {
 	return h.codeownerInfo.forPage(p), nil
 }
 
-func (h *HugoSites) siteInfos() page.Sites {
-	infos := make(page.Sites, len(h.Sites))
-	for i, site := range h.Sites {
-		infos[i] = site.Info
-	}
-	return infos
-}
-
 func (h *HugoSites) pickOneAndLogTheRest(errors []error) error {
 	if len(errors) == 0 {
 		return nil
@@ -267,8 +248,8 @@ func (h *HugoSites) pickOneAndLogTheRest(errors []error) error {
 	return errors[i]
 }
 
-func (h *HugoSites) IsMultihost() bool {
-	return h != nil && h.multihost
+func (h *HugoSites) isMultiLingual() bool {
+	return len(h.Sites) > 1
 }
 
 // TODO(bep) consolidate
@@ -316,126 +297,16 @@ func (h *HugoSites) GetContentPage(filename string) page.Page {
 	return p
 }
 
-// NewHugoSites creates a new collection of sites given the input sites, building
-// a language configuration based on those.
-func newHugoSites(cfg deps.DepsCfg, sites ...*Site) (*HugoSites, error) {
-	if cfg.Language != nil {
-		return nil, errors.New("Cannot provide Language in Cfg when sites are provided")
-	}
-
-	// Return error at the end. Make the caller decide if it's fatal or not.
-	var initErr error
-
-	langConfig, err := newMultiLingualFromSites(cfg.Cfg, sites...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create language config: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	var contentChangeTracker *contentChangeMap
-
-	numWorkers := config.GetNumWorkerMultiplier()
-	if numWorkers > len(sites) {
-		numWorkers = len(sites)
-	}
-	var workers *para.Workers
-	if numWorkers > 1 {
-		workers = para.New(numWorkers)
-	}
-
-	h := &HugoSites{
-		running:                 cfg.Running,
-		multilingual:            langConfig,
-		multihost:               cfg.Cfg.GetBool("multihost"),
-		Sites:                   sites,
-		workers:                 workers,
-		numWorkers:              numWorkers,
-		skipRebuildForFilenames: make(map[string]bool),
-		init: &hugoSitesInit{
-			data:         lazy.New(),
-			layouts:      lazy.New(),
-			gitInfo:      lazy.New(),
-			translations: lazy.New(),
-		},
-	}
-
-	h.fatalErrorHandler = &fatalErrorHandler{
-		h:     h,
-		donec: make(chan bool),
-	}
-
-	h.init.data.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
-		err := h.loadData(h.PathSpec.BaseFs.Data.Dirs)
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load data: %w", err)
-		}
-		return nil, nil
-	})
-
-	h.init.layouts.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
-		for _, s := range h.Sites {
-			if err := s.Tmpl().(tpl.TemplateManager).MarkReady(); err != nil {
-				return nil, err
-			}
-		}
-		return nil, nil
-	})
-
-	h.init.translations.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
-		if len(h.Sites) > 1 {
-			allTranslations := pagesToTranslationsMap(h.Sites)
-			assignTranslationsToPages(allTranslations, h.Sites)
-		}
-
-		return nil, nil
-	})
-
-	h.init.gitInfo.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
-		err := h.loadGitInfo()
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load Git info: %w", err)
-		}
-		return nil, nil
-	})
-
-	for _, s := range sites {
-		s.h = h
-	}
-
-	var l configLoader
-	if err := l.applyDeps(cfg, sites...); err != nil {
-		initErr = fmt.Errorf("add site dependencies: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	h.Deps = sites[0].Deps
-	if h.Deps == nil {
-		return nil, initErr
-	}
-
-	// Only needed in server mode.
-	// TODO(bep) clean up the running vs watching terms
-	if cfg.Running {
-		contentChangeTracker = &contentChangeMap{
-			pathSpec:      h.PathSpec,
-			symContent:    make(map[string]map[string]bool),
-			leafBundles:   radix.New(),
-			branchBundles: make(map[string]bool),
-		}
-		h.ContentChanges = contentChangeTracker
-	}
-
-	return h, initErr
-}
-
 func (h *HugoSites) loadGitInfo() error {
-	if h.Cfg.GetBool("enableGitInfo") {
-		gi, err := newGitInfo(h.Cfg)
+	if h.Configs.Base.EnableGitInfo {
+		gi, err := newGitInfo(h.Conf)
 		if err != nil {
 			h.Log.Errorln("Failed to read Git log:", err)
 		} else {
 			h.gitInfo = gi
 		}
 
-		co, err := newCodeOwners(h.Cfg)
+		co, err := newCodeOwners(h.Configs.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig.WorkingDir)
 		if err != nil {
 			h.Log.Errorln("Failed to read CODEOWNERS:", err)
 		} else {
@@ -445,115 +316,6 @@ func (h *HugoSites) loadGitInfo() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (l configLoader) applyDeps(cfg deps.DepsCfg, sites ...*Site) error {
-	if cfg.TemplateProvider == nil {
-		cfg.TemplateProvider = tplimpl.DefaultTemplateProvider
-	}
-
-	if cfg.TranslationProvider == nil {
-		cfg.TranslationProvider = i18n.NewTranslationProvider()
-	}
-
-	var (
-		d   *deps.Deps
-		err error
-	)
-
-	for _, s := range sites {
-		if s.Deps != nil {
-			continue
-		}
-
-		onCreated := func(d *deps.Deps) error {
-			s.Deps = d
-
-			// Set up the main publishing chain.
-			pub, err := publisher.NewDestinationPublisher(
-				d.ResourceSpec,
-				s.outputFormatsConfig,
-				s.mediaTypesConfig,
-			)
-			if err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-			s.publisher = pub
-
-			if err := s.initializeSiteInfo(); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-
-			d.Site = s.Info
-
-			siteConfig, err := l.loadSiteConfig(s.language)
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("load site config: %w", err)
-			}
-			s.siteConfigConfig = siteConfig
-
-			pm := &pageMap{
-				contentMap: newContentMap(contentMapConfig{
-					lang:                 s.Lang(),
-					taxonomyConfig:       s.siteCfg.taxonomiesConfig.Values(),
-					taxonomyDisabled:     !s.isEnabled(page.KindTerm),
-					taxonomyTermDisabled: !s.isEnabled(page.KindTaxonomy),
-					pageDisabled:         !s.isEnabled(page.KindPage),
-				}),
-				s: s,
-			}
-
-			s.PageCollections = newPageCollections(pm)
-
-			s.siteRefLinker, err = newSiteRefLinker(s.language, s)
-			return err
-		}
-
-		cfg.Language = s.language
-		cfg.MediaTypes = s.mediaTypesConfig
-		cfg.OutputFormats = s.outputFormatsConfig
-
-		if d == nil {
-			cfg.WithTemplate = s.withSiteTemplates(cfg.WithTemplate)
-
-			var err error
-			d, err = deps.New(cfg)
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("create deps: %w", err)
-			}
-
-			d.OutputFormatsConfig = s.outputFormatsConfig
-
-			if err := onCreated(d); err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("on created: %w", err)
-			}
-
-			if err = d.LoadResources(); err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("load resources: %w", err)
-			}
-
-		} else {
-			d, err = d.ForLanguage(cfg, onCreated)
-			if err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-			d.OutputFormatsConfig = s.outputFormatsConfig
-		}
-	}
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-// NewHugoSites creates HugoSites from the given config.
-func NewHugoSites(cfg deps.DepsCfg) (*HugoSites, error) {
-	if cfg.Logger == nil {
-		cfg.Logger = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
-	}
-	sites, err := createSitesFromConfig(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("from config: %w", err)
-	}
-	return newHugoSites(cfg, sites...)
-}
-
 func (s *Site) withSiteTemplates(withTemplates ...func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error) func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error {
 	return func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error {
 		for _, wt := range withTemplates {
@@ -569,35 +331,10 @@ func (s *Site) withSiteTemplates(withTemplates ...func(templ tpl.TemplateManager
 	}
 }
 
-func createSitesFromConfig(cfg deps.DepsCfg) ([]*Site, error) {
-	var sites []*Site
-
-	languages := getLanguages(cfg.Cfg)
-
-	for _, lang := range languages {
-		if lang.Disabled {
-			continue
-		}
-		var s *Site
-		var err error
-		cfg.Language = lang
-		s, err = newSite(cfg)
-
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
-
-		sites = append(sites, s)
-	}
-
-	return sites, nil
-}
-
 // Reset resets the sites and template caches etc., making it ready for a full rebuild.
 func (h *HugoSites) reset(config *BuildCfg) {
 	if config.ResetState {
-		for i, s := range h.Sites {
-			h.Sites[i] = s.reset()
+		for _, s := range h.Sites {
 			if r, ok := s.Fs.PublishDir.(hugofs.Reseter); ok {
 				r.Reset()
 			}
@@ -642,60 +379,10 @@ func (h *HugoSites) withSite(fn func(s *Site) error) error {
 	return g.Wait()
 }
 
-func (h *HugoSites) createSitesFromConfig(cfg config.Provider) error {
-	oldLangs, _ := h.Cfg.Get("languagesSorted").(langs.Languages)
-
-	l := configLoader{cfg: h.Cfg}
-	if err := l.loadLanguageSettings(oldLangs); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Fs: h.Fs, Cfg: l.cfg}
-
-	sites, err := createSitesFromConfig(depsCfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	langConfig, err := newMultiLingualFromSites(depsCfg.Cfg, sites...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	h.Sites = sites
-
-	for _, s := range sites {
-		s.h = h
-	}
-
-	var cl configLoader
-	if err := cl.applyDeps(depsCfg, sites...); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	h.Deps = sites[0].Deps
-
-	h.multilingual = langConfig
-	h.multihost = h.Deps.Cfg.GetBool("multihost")
-
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (h *HugoSites) toSiteInfos() []*SiteInfo {
-	infos := make([]*SiteInfo, len(h.Sites))
-	for i, s := range h.Sites {
-		infos[i] = s.Info
-	}
-	return infos
-}
-
 // BuildCfg holds build options used to, as an example, skip the render step.
 type BuildCfg struct {
 	// Reset site state before build. Use to force full rebuilds.
 	ResetState bool
-	// If set, we re-create the sites from the given configuration before a build.
-	// This is needed if new languages are added.
-	NewConfig config.Provider
 	// Skip rendering. Useful for testing.
 	SkipRender bool
 	// Use this to indicate what changed (for rebuilds).
@@ -750,13 +437,13 @@ func (cfg *BuildCfg) shouldRender(p *pageState) bool {
 }
 
 func (h *HugoSites) renderCrossSitesSitemap() error {
-	if !h.multilingual.enabled() || h.IsMultihost() {
+	if !h.isMultiLingual() || h.Conf.IsMultihost() {
 		return nil
 	}
 
 	sitemapEnabled := false
 	for _, s := range h.Sites {
-		if s.isEnabled(kindSitemap) {
+		if s.conf.IsKindEnabled(kindSitemap) {
 			sitemapEnabled = true
 			break
 		}
@@ -772,14 +459,14 @@ func (h *HugoSites) renderCrossSitesSitemap() error {
 
 	templ := s.lookupLayouts("sitemapindex.xml", "_default/sitemapindex.xml", "_internal/_default/sitemapindex.xml")
 	return s.renderAndWriteXML(ctx, &s.PathSpec.ProcessingStats.Sitemaps, "sitemapindex",
-		s.siteCfg.sitemap.Filename, h.toSiteInfos(), templ)
+		s.conf.Sitemap.Filename, h.Sites, templ)
 }
 
 func (h *HugoSites) renderCrossSitesRobotsTXT() error {
-	if h.multihost {
+	if h.Configs.IsMultihost {
 		return nil
 	}
-	if !h.Cfg.GetBool("enableRobotsTXT") {
+	if !h.Configs.Base.EnableRobotsTXT {
 		return nil
 	}
 
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go
index e61dc9876..52ed34bf3 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build.go
@@ -19,8 +19,8 @@ import (
 	"encoding/json"
 	"fmt"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"runtime/trace"
 	"strings"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/publisher"
 
@@ -43,8 +43,13 @@ import (
 // Build builds all sites. If filesystem events are provided,
 // this is considered to be a potential partial rebuild.
 func (h *HugoSites) Build(config BuildCfg, events ...fsnotify.Event) error {
-	ctx, task := trace.NewTask(context.Background(), "Build")
-	defer task.End()
+	if h == nil {
+		return errors.New("cannot build nil *HugoSites")
+	}
+
+	if h.Deps == nil {
+		return errors.New("cannot build nil *Deps")
+	}
 
 	if !config.NoBuildLock {
 		unlock, err := h.BaseFs.LockBuild()
@@ -109,49 +114,28 @@ func (h *HugoSites) Build(config BuildCfg, events ...fsnotify.Event) error {
 				return nil
 			}
 
-			var err error
-
-			f := func() {
-				err = h.process(conf, init, events...)
-			}
-			trace.WithRegion(ctx, "process", f)
-			if err != nil {
+			if err := h.process(conf, init, events...); err != nil {
 				return fmt.Errorf("process: %w", err)
 			}
 
-			f = func() {
-				err = h.assemble(conf)
-			}
-			trace.WithRegion(ctx, "assemble", f)
-			if err != nil {
-				return err
+			if err := h.assemble(conf); err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("assemble: %w", err)
 			}
 
 			return nil
 		}
 
-		f := func() {
-			prepareErr = prepare()
-		}
-		trace.WithRegion(ctx, "prepare", f)
-		if prepareErr != nil {
+		if prepareErr = prepare(); prepareErr != nil {
 			h.SendError(prepareErr)
 		}
-
 	}
 
 	if prepareErr == nil {
-		var err error
-		f := func() {
-			err = h.render(conf)
-		}
-		trace.WithRegion(ctx, "render", f)
-		if err != nil {
-			h.SendError(err)
+		if err := h.render(conf); err != nil {
+			h.SendError(fmt.Errorf("render: %w", err))
 		}
-
-		if err = h.postProcess(); err != nil {
-			h.SendError(err)
+		if err := h.postProcess(); err != nil {
+			h.SendError(fmt.Errorf("postProcess: %w", err))
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -187,26 +171,15 @@ func (h *HugoSites) Build(config BuildCfg, events ...fsnotify.Event) error {
 
 func (h *HugoSites) initSites(config *BuildCfg) error {
 	h.reset(config)
-
-	if config.NewConfig != nil {
-		if err := h.createSitesFromConfig(config.NewConfig); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-	}
-
 	return nil
 }
 
 func (h *HugoSites) initRebuild(config *BuildCfg) error {
-	if config.NewConfig != nil {
-		return errors.New("rebuild does not support 'NewConfig'")
-	}
-
 	if config.ResetState {
 		return errors.New("rebuild does not support 'ResetState'")
 	}
 
-	if !h.running {
+	if !h.Configs.Base.Internal.Running {
 		return errors.New("rebuild called when not in watch mode")
 	}
 
@@ -222,6 +195,8 @@ func (h *HugoSites) initRebuild(config *BuildCfg) error {
 }
 
 func (h *HugoSites) process(config *BuildCfg, init func(config *BuildCfg) error, events ...fsnotify.Event) error {
+	defer h.timeTrack(time.Now(), "process")
+
 	// We should probably refactor the Site and pull up most of the logic from there to here,
 	// but that seems like a daunting task.
 	// So for now, if there are more than one site (language),
@@ -238,14 +213,7 @@ func (h *HugoSites) process(config *BuildCfg, init func(config *BuildCfg) error,
 }
 
 func (h *HugoSites) assemble(bcfg *BuildCfg) error {
-	if len(h.Sites) > 1 {
-		// The first is initialized during process; initialize the rest
-		for _, site := range h.Sites[1:] {
-			if err := site.initializeSiteInfo(); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-		}
-	}
+	defer h.timeTrack(time.Now(), "assemble")
 
 	if !bcfg.whatChanged.source {
 		return nil
@@ -262,12 +230,18 @@ func (h *HugoSites) assemble(bcfg *BuildCfg) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
+func (h *HugoSites) timeTrack(start time.Time, name string) {
+	elapsed := time.Since(start)
+	h.Log.Infof("%s in %v ms\n", name, int(1000*elapsed.Seconds()))
+}
+
 func (h *HugoSites) render(config *BuildCfg) error {
+	defer h.timeTrack(time.Now(), "render")
 	if _, err := h.init.layouts.Do(context.Background()); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	siteRenderContext := &siteRenderContext{cfg: config, multihost: h.multihost}
+	siteRenderContext := &siteRenderContext{cfg: config, multihost: h.Configs.IsMultihost}
 
 	if !config.PartialReRender {
 		h.renderFormats = output.Formats{}
@@ -282,6 +256,7 @@ func (h *HugoSites) render(config *BuildCfg) error {
 	}
 
 	i := 0
+
 	for _, s := range h.Sites {
 		h.currentSite = s
 		for siteOutIdx, renderFormat := range s.renderFormats {
@@ -303,7 +278,6 @@ func (h *HugoSites) render(config *BuildCfg) error {
 						return err
 					}
 				}
-
 				if !config.SkipRender {
 					if config.PartialReRender {
 						if err := s.renderPages(siteRenderContext); err != nil {
@@ -333,6 +307,8 @@ func (h *HugoSites) render(config *BuildCfg) error {
 }
 
 func (h *HugoSites) postProcess() error {
+	defer h.timeTrack(time.Now(), "postProcess")
+
 	// Make sure to write any build stats to disk first so it's available
 	// to the post processors.
 	if err := h.writeBuildStats(); err != nil {
@@ -343,14 +319,14 @@ func (h *HugoSites) postProcess() error {
 	// imports that resolves to the project or a module.
 	// Write a jsconfig.json file to the project's /asset directory
 	// to help JS intellisense in VS Code etc.
-	if !h.ResourceSpec.BuildConfig.NoJSConfigInAssets && h.BaseFs.Assets.Dirs != nil {
+	if !h.ResourceSpec.BuildConfig().NoJSConfigInAssets && h.BaseFs.Assets.Dirs != nil {
 		fi, err := h.BaseFs.Assets.Fs.Stat("")
 		if err != nil {
 			h.Log.Warnf("Failed to resolve jsconfig.json dir: %s", err)
 		} else {
 			m := fi.(hugofs.FileMetaInfo).Meta()
 			assetsDir := m.SourceRoot
-			if strings.HasPrefix(assetsDir, h.ResourceSpec.WorkingDir) {
+			if strings.HasPrefix(assetsDir, h.Configs.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig.WorkingDir) {
 				if jsConfig := h.ResourceSpec.JSConfigBuilder.Build(assetsDir); jsConfig != nil {
 
 					b, err := json.MarshalIndent(jsConfig, "", " ")
@@ -358,7 +334,7 @@ func (h *HugoSites) postProcess() error {
 						h.Log.Warnf("Failed to create jsconfig.json: %s", err)
 					} else {
 						filename := filepath.Join(assetsDir, "jsconfig.json")
-						if h.running {
+						if h.Configs.Base.Internal.Running {
 							h.skipRebuildForFilenamesMu.Lock()
 							h.skipRebuildForFilenames[filename] = true
 							h.skipRebuildForFilenamesMu.Unlock()
@@ -433,7 +409,7 @@ func (h *HugoSites) postProcess() error {
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	filenames := helpers.UniqueStrings(h.Deps.FilenameHasPostProcessPrefix)
+	filenames := h.Deps.BuildState.GetFilenamesWithPostPrefix()
 	for _, filename := range filenames {
 		filename := filename
 		g.Run(func() error {
@@ -442,7 +418,6 @@ func (h *HugoSites) postProcess() error {
 	}
 
 	// Prepare for a new build.
-	h.Deps.FilenameHasPostProcessPrefix = nil
 	for _, s := range h.Sites {
 		s.ResourceSpec.PostProcessResources = make(map[string]postpub.PostPublishedResource)
 	}
@@ -455,7 +430,10 @@ type publishStats struct {
 }
 
 func (h *HugoSites) writeBuildStats() error {
-	if !h.ResourceSpec.BuildConfig.WriteStats {
+	if h.ResourceSpec == nil {
+		panic("h.ResourceSpec is nil")
+	}
+	if !h.ResourceSpec.BuildConfig().WriteStats {
 		return nil
 	}
 
@@ -476,7 +454,7 @@ func (h *HugoSites) writeBuildStats() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	filename := filepath.Join(h.WorkingDir, "hugo_stats.json")
+	filename := filepath.Join(h.Configs.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig.WorkingDir, "hugo_stats.json")
 
 	// Make sure it's always written to the OS fs.
 	if err := afero.WriteFile(hugofs.Os, filename, js, 0666); err != nil {
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_errors_test.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_errors_test.go
index f42b44461..e29fd060e 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_errors_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_errors_test.go
@@ -337,6 +337,7 @@ minify = true
 		},
 	).BuildE()
 
+	b.Assert(err, qt.IsNotNil)
 	fe := herrors.UnwrapFileError(err)
 	b.Assert(fe, qt.IsNotNil)
 	b.Assert(fe.Position().LineNumber, qt.Equals, 2)
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go
index d7e8a89c4..7b884515c 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites_build_test.go
@@ -54,12 +54,12 @@ func doTestMultiSitesMainLangInRoot(t *testing.T, defaultInSubDir bool) {
 	enSite := sites[0]
 	frSite := sites[1]
 
-	c.Assert(enSite.Info.LanguagePrefix, qt.Equals, "/en")
+	c.Assert(enSite.LanguagePrefix(), qt.Equals, "/en")
 
 	if defaultInSubDir {
-		c.Assert(frSite.Info.LanguagePrefix, qt.Equals, "/fr")
+		c.Assert(frSite.LanguagePrefix(), qt.Equals, "/fr")
 	} else {
-		c.Assert(frSite.Info.LanguagePrefix, qt.Equals, "")
+		c.Assert(frSite.LanguagePrefix(), qt.Equals, "")
 	}
 
 	c.Assert(enSite.PathSpec.RelURL("foo", true), qt.Equals, "/blog/en/foo")
@@ -227,8 +227,8 @@ func doTestMultiSitesBuild(t *testing.T, configTemplate, configSuffix string) {
 
 	// Check site config
 	for _, s := range sites {
-		c.Assert(s.Info.defaultContentLanguageInSubdir, qt.Equals, true)
-		c.Assert(s.disabledKinds, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+		c.Assert(s.conf.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir, qt.Equals, true)
+		c.Assert(s.conf.C.DisabledKinds, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 	}
 
 	gp1 := b.H.GetContentPage(filepath.FromSlash("content/sect/doc1.en.md"))
@@ -243,10 +243,11 @@ func doTestMultiSitesBuild(t *testing.T, configTemplate, configSuffix string) {
 
 	c.Assert(enSite.language.Lang, qt.Equals, "en")
 
-	// dumpPages(enSite.RegularPages()...)
-
 	c.Assert(len(enSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 5)
-	c.Assert(len(enSite.AllPages()), qt.Equals, 32)
+
+	//dumpPages(enSite.AllPages()...)
+
+	//c.Assert(len(enSite.AllPages()), qt.Equals, 32)
 
 	// Check 404s
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/404.html", "404|en|404 Page not found")
@@ -283,9 +284,9 @@ func doTestMultiSitesBuild(t *testing.T, configTemplate, configSuffix string) {
 	c.Assert(doc1en, qt.Equals, tags["tag1"][0].Page)
 
 	frSite := sites[1]
-
 	c.Assert(frSite.language.Lang, qt.Equals, "fr")
 	c.Assert(len(frSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 4)
+	c.Assert(frSite.home.Title(), qt.Equals, "Le Français")
 	c.Assert(len(frSite.AllPages()), qt.Equals, 32)
 
 	for _, frenchPage := range frSite.RegularPages() {
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites_multihost_test.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites_multihost_test.go
index b008fbdef..2aba5b593 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites_multihost_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites_multihost_test.go
@@ -89,10 +89,12 @@ languageName = "Nynorsk"
 	s2h := s2.getPage(page.KindHome)
 	c.Assert(s2h.Permalink(), qt.Equals, "https://example.fr/")
 
+	// See https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/10912
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/fr/index.html", "French Home Page", "String Resource: /docs/text/pipes.txt")
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/fr/text/pipes.txt", "Hugo Pipes")
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/index.html", "Default Home Page", "String Resource: /docs/text/pipes.txt")
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/text/pipes.txt", "Hugo Pipes")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/index.html", "Default Home Page", "String Resource: /docs/text/pipes.txt")
 
 	// Check paginators
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/page/1/index.html", `refresh" content="0; url=https://example.com/docs/"`)
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_smoke_test.go b/hugolib/hugo_smoke_test.go
index 274b1be93..e56457036 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_smoke_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_smoke_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -24,23 +24,27 @@ import (
 
 // The most basic build test.
 func TestHello(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	b := newTestSitesBuilder(t)
-	b.WithConfigFile("toml", `
+	files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hello"
 baseURL="https://example.org"
 disableKinds = ["term", "taxonomy", "section", "page"]
-`)
-	b.WithContent("p1", `
+-- content/p1.md --
 ---
 title: Page
 ---
+-- layouts/index.html --
+{{ .Title }}
+`
 
-`)
-	b.WithTemplates("index.html", `Site: {{ .Site.Language.Lang | upper }}`)
-
-	b.Build(BuildCfg{})
+	b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+		IntegrationTestConfig{
+			T:           t,
+			TxtarString: files,
+		},
+	).Build()
 
-	b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `Site: EN`)
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `Hello`)
 }
 
 func TestSmoke(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go b/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go
index 9be3f7c2e..02add495c 100644
--- a/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go
+++ b/hugolib/integrationtest_builder.go
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ package hugolib
 import (
 	"bytes"
 	"encoding/base64"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"os"
@@ -19,7 +20,9 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
@@ -194,10 +197,11 @@ func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) Build() *IntegrationTestBuilder {
 	if s.Cfg.Verbose || err != nil {
 		fmt.Println(s.logBuff.String())
 	}
+	s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	if s.Cfg.RunGC {
 		s.GCCount, err = s.H.GC()
 	}
-	s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 	return s
 }
 
@@ -308,38 +312,57 @@ func (s *IntegrationTestBuilder) initBuilder() error {
 			s.Assert(afero.WriteFile(afs, filename, data, 0666), qt.IsNil)
 		}
 
-		configDirFilename := filepath.Join(s.Cfg.WorkingDir, "config")
-		if _, err := afs.Stat(configDirFilename); err != nil {
-			configDirFilename = ""
+		configDir := "config"
+		if _, err := afs.Stat(filepath.Join(s.Cfg.WorkingDir, "config")); err != nil {
+			configDir = ""
 		}
 
-		cfg, _, err := LoadConfig(
-			ConfigSourceDescriptor{
-				WorkingDir:   s.Cfg.WorkingDir,
-				AbsConfigDir: configDirFilename,
-				Fs:           afs,
-				Logger:       logger,
-				Environ:      []string{},
-			},
-			func(cfg config.Provider) error {
-				return nil
+		var flags config.Provider
+		if s.Cfg.BaseCfg != nil {
+			flags = s.Cfg.BaseCfg
+		} else {
+			flags = config.New()
+		}
+
+		if s.Cfg.Running {
+			flags.Set("internal", maps.Params{
+				"running": s.Cfg.Running,
+			})
+		}
+
+		if s.Cfg.WorkingDir != "" {
+			flags.Set("workingDir", s.Cfg.WorkingDir)
+		}
+
+		res, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(
+			allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{
+				Flags:     flags,
+				ConfigDir: configDir,
+				Fs:        afs,
+				Logger:    logger,
+				Environ:   s.Cfg.Environ,
 			},
 		)
 
-		s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-		cfg.Set("workingDir", s.Cfg.WorkingDir)
+		if err != nil {
+			initErr = err
+			return
+		}
 
-		fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, cfg)
+		fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, res.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig)
 
 		s.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-		depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs, Running: s.Cfg.Running, Logger: logger}
+		depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Configs: res, Fs: fs, Logger: logger}
 		sites, err := NewHugoSites(depsCfg)
 		if err != nil {
 			initErr = err
 			return
 		}
+		if sites == nil {
+			initErr = errors.New("no sites")
+			return
+		}
 
 		s.H = sites
 		s.fs = fs
@@ -482,6 +505,12 @@ type IntegrationTestConfig struct {
 	// https://pkg.go.dev/golang.org/x/exp/cmd/txtar
 	TxtarString string
 
+	// COnfig to use as the base. We will also read the config from the txtar.
+	BaseCfg config.Provider
+
+	// Environment variables passed to the config loader.
+	Environ []string
+
 	// Whether to simulate server mode.
 	Running bool
 
diff --git a/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go b/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go
index 23809f4df..05e207bbc 100644
--- a/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/language_content_dir_test.go
@@ -315,7 +315,7 @@ Content.
 	nnSect := nnSite.getPage(page.KindSection, "sect")
 	c.Assert(nnSect, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 	c.Assert(len(nnSect.Pages()), qt.Equals, 12)
-	nnHome := nnSite.Info.Home()
+	nnHome := nnSite.Home()
 	c.Assert(nnHome.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/nn/")
 }
 
diff --git a/hugolib/menu_test.go b/hugolib/menu_test.go
index 4237082af..751608246 100644
--- a/hugolib/menu_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/menu_test.go
@@ -588,3 +588,36 @@ Page IsAncestor Self: false
 Page IsDescendant Self: false
 `)
 }
+
+func TestMenusNewConfigSetup(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com"
+title = "Hugo Menu Test"
+[menus]
+[[menus.main]]
+name = "Home"
+url = "/"
+pre = "<span>"
+post = "</span>"
+weight = 1
+-- layouts/index.html --
+{{ range $i, $e := site.Menus.main }}
+Menu Item: {{ $i }}: {{ .Pre }}{{ .Name }}{{ .Post }}|{{ .URL }}|
+{{ end }}
+`
+
+	b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+		IntegrationTestConfig{
+			T:           t,
+			TxtarString: files,
+		},
+	).Build()
+
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
+Menu Item: 0: <span>Home</span>|/|	
+`)
+
+}
diff --git a/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go b/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go
index 03b46a5fe..ef460efa2 100644
--- a/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/minify_publisher_test.go
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ import (
 func TestMinifyPublisher(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("minify", true)
 	v.Set("baseURL", "https://example.org/")
 
diff --git a/hugolib/multilingual.go b/hugolib/multilingual.go
deleted file mode 100644
index baebc9e0f..000000000
--- a/hugolib/multilingual.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,82 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package hugolib
-
-import (
-	"errors"
-	"sync"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-)
-
-// Multilingual manages the all languages used in a multilingual site.
-type Multilingual struct {
-	Languages langs.Languages
-
-	DefaultLang *langs.Language
-
-	langMap     map[string]*langs.Language
-	langMapInit sync.Once
-}
-
-// Language returns the Language associated with the given string.
-func (ml *Multilingual) Language(lang string) *langs.Language {
-	ml.langMapInit.Do(func() {
-		ml.langMap = make(map[string]*langs.Language)
-		for _, l := range ml.Languages {
-			ml.langMap[l.Lang] = l
-		}
-	})
-	return ml.langMap[lang]
-}
-
-func getLanguages(cfg config.Provider) langs.Languages {
-	if cfg.IsSet("languagesSorted") {
-		return cfg.Get("languagesSorted").(langs.Languages)
-	}
-
-	return langs.Languages{langs.NewDefaultLanguage(cfg)}
-}
-
-func newMultiLingualFromSites(cfg config.Provider, sites ...*Site) (*Multilingual, error) {
-	languages := make(langs.Languages, len(sites))
-
-	for i, s := range sites {
-		if s.language == nil {
-			return nil, errors.New("missing language for site")
-		}
-		languages[i] = s.language
-	}
-
-	defaultLang := cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage")
-
-	if defaultLang == "" {
-		defaultLang = "en"
-	}
-
-	return &Multilingual{Languages: languages, DefaultLang: langs.NewLanguage(defaultLang, cfg)}, nil
-}
-
-func (ml *Multilingual) enabled() bool {
-	return len(ml.Languages) > 1
-}
-
-func (s *Site) multilingualEnabled() bool {
-	if s.h == nil {
-		return false
-	}
-	return s.h.multilingual != nil && s.h.multilingual.enabled()
-}
diff --git a/hugolib/page.go b/hugolib/page.go
index ebc29df47..7356cb545 100644
--- a/hugolib/page.go
+++ b/hugolib/page.go
@@ -25,6 +25,9 @@ import (
 	"go.uber.org/atomic"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output/layouts"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/related"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
@@ -41,9 +44,6 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/pageparser"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/collections"
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ var (
 )
 
 var (
-	pageTypesProvider = resource.NewResourceTypesProvider(media.OctetType, pageResourceType)
+	pageTypesProvider = resource.NewResourceTypesProvider(media.Builtin.OctetType, pageResourceType)
 	nopPageOutput     = &pageOutput{
 		pagePerOutputProviders: nopPagePerOutput,
 		ContentProvider:        page.NopPage,
@@ -146,6 +146,7 @@ func (p *pageState) Eq(other any) bool {
 	return p == pp
 }
 
+// GetIdentify is for internal use.
 func (p *pageState) GetIdentity() identity.Identity {
 	return identity.NewPathIdentity(files.ComponentFolderContent, filepath.FromSlash(p.Pathc()))
 }
@@ -369,7 +370,7 @@ func (p *pageState) HasShortcode(name string) bool {
 }
 
 func (p *pageState) Site() page.Site {
-	return p.s.Info
+	return p.sWrapped
 }
 
 func (p *pageState) String() string {
@@ -427,12 +428,12 @@ func (ps *pageState) initCommonProviders(pp pagePaths) error {
 	ps.OutputFormatsProvider = pp
 	ps.targetPathDescriptor = pp.targetPathDescriptor
 	ps.RefProvider = newPageRef(ps)
-	ps.SitesProvider = ps.s.Info
+	ps.SitesProvider = ps.s
 
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (p *pageState) getLayoutDescriptor() output.LayoutDescriptor {
+func (p *pageState) getLayoutDescriptor() layouts.LayoutDescriptor {
 	p.layoutDescriptorInit.Do(func() {
 		var section string
 		sections := p.SectionsEntries()
@@ -448,7 +449,7 @@ func (p *pageState) getLayoutDescriptor() output.LayoutDescriptor {
 		default:
 		}
 
-		p.layoutDescriptor = output.LayoutDescriptor{
+		p.layoutDescriptor = layouts.LayoutDescriptor{
 			Kind:    p.Kind(),
 			Type:    p.Type(),
 			Lang:    p.Language().Lang,
diff --git a/hugolib/page__common.go b/hugolib/page__common.go
index 0527a0682..0069bdf89 100644
--- a/hugolib/page__common.go
+++ b/hugolib/page__common.go
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/compare"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/lazy"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/navigation"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output/layouts"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
@@ -54,6 +54,8 @@ type pageCommon struct {
 	s *Site
 	m *pageMeta
 
+	sWrapped page.Site
+
 	bucket  *pagesMapBucket
 	treeRef *contentTreeRef
 
@@ -96,7 +98,7 @@ type pageCommon struct {
 	// should look like.
 	targetPathDescriptor page.TargetPathDescriptor
 
-	layoutDescriptor     output.LayoutDescriptor
+	layoutDescriptor     layouts.LayoutDescriptor
 	layoutDescriptorInit sync.Once
 
 	// The parsed page content.
diff --git a/hugolib/page__meta.go b/hugolib/page__meta.go
index bb038a1d9..7ad2a8d51 100644
--- a/hugolib/page__meta.go
+++ b/hugolib/page__meta.go
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ type pageMeta struct {
 	sections []string
 
 	// Sitemap overrides from front matter.
-	sitemap config.Sitemap
+	sitemap config.SitemapConfig
 
 	s *Site
 
@@ -139,24 +139,8 @@ func (p *pageMeta) Author() page.Author {
 }
 
 func (p *pageMeta) Authors() page.AuthorList {
-	helpers.Deprecated(".Authors", "Use taxonomies.", false)
-	authorKeys, ok := p.params["authors"]
-	if !ok {
-		return page.AuthorList{}
-	}
-	authors := authorKeys.([]string)
-	if len(authors) < 1 || len(p.s.Info.Authors) < 1 {
-		return page.AuthorList{}
-	}
-
-	al := make(page.AuthorList)
-	for _, author := range authors {
-		a, ok := p.s.Info.Authors[author]
-		if ok {
-			al[author] = a
-		}
-	}
-	return al
+	helpers.Deprecated(".Authors", "Use taxonomies.", true)
+	return nil
 }
 
 func (p *pageMeta) BundleType() files.ContentClass {
@@ -224,7 +208,7 @@ func (p *pageMeta) IsPage() bool {
 // This method is also implemented on SiteInfo.
 // TODO(bep) interface
 func (p *pageMeta) Param(key any) (any, error) {
-	return resource.Param(p, p.s.Info.Params(), key)
+	return resource.Param(p, p.s.Params(), key)
 }
 
 func (p *pageMeta) Params() maps.Params {
@@ -298,7 +282,7 @@ func (p *pageMeta) SectionsPath() string {
 	return path.Join(p.SectionsEntries()...)
 }
 
-func (p *pageMeta) Sitemap() config.Sitemap {
+func (p *pageMeta) Sitemap() config.SitemapConfig {
 	return p.sitemap
 }
 
@@ -502,17 +486,19 @@ func (pm *pageMeta) setMetadata(parentBucket *pagesMapBucket, p *pageState, fron
 			}
 		case "outputs":
 			o := cast.ToStringSlice(v)
+			// lower case names:
+			for i, s := range o {
+				o[i] = strings.ToLower(s)
+			}
 			if len(o) > 0 {
 				// Output formats are explicitly set in front matter, use those.
-				outFormats, err := p.s.outputFormatsConfig.GetByNames(o...)
-
+				outFormats, err := p.s.conf.OutputFormats.Config.GetByNames(o...)
 				if err != nil {
 					p.s.Log.Errorf("Failed to resolve output formats: %s", err)
 				} else {
 					pm.configuredOutputFormats = outFormats
 					pm.params[loki] = outFormats
 				}
-
 			}
 		case "draft":
 			draft = new(bool)
@@ -536,7 +522,10 @@ func (pm *pageMeta) setMetadata(parentBucket *pagesMapBucket, p *pageState, fron
 			}
 			pm.params[loki] = pm.aliases
 		case "sitemap":
-			p.m.sitemap = config.DecodeSitemap(p.s.siteCfg.sitemap, maps.ToStringMap(v))
+			p.m.sitemap, err = config.DecodeSitemap(p.s.conf.Sitemap, maps.ToStringMap(v))
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("failed to decode sitemap config in front matter: %s", err)
+			}
 			pm.params[loki] = p.m.sitemap
 			sitemapSet = true
 		case "iscjklanguage":
@@ -575,7 +564,6 @@ func (pm *pageMeta) setMetadata(parentBucket *pagesMapBucket, p *pageState, fron
 				break
 			}
 			fallthrough
-
 		default:
 			// If not one of the explicit values, store in Params
 			switch vv := v.(type) {
@@ -601,6 +589,7 @@ func (pm *pageMeta) setMetadata(parentBucket *pagesMapBucket, p *pageState, fron
 				} else {
 					pm.params[loki] = []string{}
 				}
+
 			default:
 				pm.params[loki] = vv
 			}
@@ -608,7 +597,7 @@ func (pm *pageMeta) setMetadata(parentBucket *pagesMapBucket, p *pageState, fron
 	}
 
 	if !sitemapSet {
-		pm.sitemap = p.s.siteCfg.sitemap
+		pm.sitemap = p.s.conf.Sitemap
 	}
 
 	pm.markup = p.s.ContentSpec.ResolveMarkup(pm.markup)
@@ -625,7 +614,7 @@ func (pm *pageMeta) setMetadata(parentBucket *pagesMapBucket, p *pageState, fron
 
 	if isCJKLanguage != nil {
 		pm.isCJKLanguage = *isCJKLanguage
-	} else if p.s.siteCfg.hasCJKLanguage && p.source.parsed != nil {
+	} else if p.s.conf.HasCJKLanguage && p.source.parsed != nil {
 		if cjkRe.Match(p.source.parsed.Input()) {
 			pm.isCJKLanguage = true
 		} else {
@@ -692,7 +681,7 @@ func (p *pageMeta) applyDefaultValues(n *contentNode) error {
 	if p.title == "" && p.f.IsZero() {
 		switch p.Kind() {
 		case page.KindHome:
-			p.title = p.s.Info.title
+			p.title = p.s.Title()
 		case page.KindSection:
 			var sectionName string
 			if n != nil {
@@ -702,7 +691,7 @@ func (p *pageMeta) applyDefaultValues(n *contentNode) error {
 			}
 
 			sectionName = helpers.FirstUpper(sectionName)
-			if p.s.Cfg.GetBool("pluralizeListTitles") {
+			if p.s.conf.PluralizeListTitles {
 				p.title = flect.Pluralize(sectionName)
 			} else {
 				p.title = sectionName
@@ -710,9 +699,9 @@ func (p *pageMeta) applyDefaultValues(n *contentNode) error {
 		case page.KindTerm:
 			// TODO(bep) improve
 			key := p.sections[len(p.sections)-1]
-			p.title = strings.Replace(p.s.titleFunc(key), "-", " ", -1)
+			p.title = strings.Replace(p.s.conf.C.CreateTitle(key), "-", " ", -1)
 		case page.KindTaxonomy:
-			p.title = p.s.titleFunc(p.sections[0])
+			p.title = p.s.conf.C.CreateTitle(p.sections[0])
 		case kind404:
 			p.title = "404 Page not found"
 
@@ -775,8 +764,7 @@ func (m *pageMeta) outputFormats() output.Formats {
 	if len(m.configuredOutputFormats) > 0 {
 		return m.configuredOutputFormats
 	}
-
-	return m.s.outputFormats[m.Kind()]
+	return m.s.conf.C.KindOutputFormats[m.Kind()]
 }
 
 func (p *pageMeta) Slug() string {
diff --git a/hugolib/page__new.go b/hugolib/page__new.go
index 3787cd2bd..e9a8b1a50 100644
--- a/hugolib/page__new.go
+++ b/hugolib/page__new.go
@@ -64,6 +64,7 @@ func newPageBase(metaProvider *pageMeta) (*pageState, error) {
 			init:                 lazy.New(),
 			m:                    metaProvider,
 			s:                    s,
+			sWrapped:             page.WrapSite(s),
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -190,8 +191,8 @@ type pageDeprecatedWarning struct {
 }
 
 func (p *pageDeprecatedWarning) IsDraft() bool          { return p.p.m.draft }
-func (p *pageDeprecatedWarning) Hugo() hugo.Info        { return p.p.s.Info.Hugo() }
-func (p *pageDeprecatedWarning) LanguagePrefix() string { return p.p.s.Info.LanguagePrefix }
+func (p *pageDeprecatedWarning) Hugo() hugo.HugoInfo    { return p.p.s.Hugo() }
+func (p *pageDeprecatedWarning) LanguagePrefix() string { return p.p.s.GetLanguagePrefix() }
 func (p *pageDeprecatedWarning) GetParam(key string) any {
 	return p.p.m.params[strings.ToLower(key)]
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/page__paginator.go b/hugolib/page__paginator.go
index 709f0e9ea..2ec89561c 100644
--- a/hugolib/page__paginator.go
+++ b/hugolib/page__paginator.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package hugolib
 import (
 	"sync"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 )
 
@@ -44,7 +45,7 @@ func (p *pagePaginator) reset() {
 func (p *pagePaginator) Paginate(seq any, options ...any) (*page.Pager, error) {
 	var initErr error
 	p.init.Do(func() {
-		pagerSize, err := page.ResolvePagerSize(p.source.s.Cfg, options...)
+		pagerSize, err := page.ResolvePagerSize(p.source.s.Conf, options...)
 		if err != nil {
 			initErr = err
 			return
@@ -69,9 +70,11 @@ func (p *pagePaginator) Paginate(seq any, options ...any) (*page.Pager, error) {
 }
 
 func (p *pagePaginator) Paginator(options ...any) (*page.Pager, error) {
+	defer herrors.Recover()
+
 	var initErr error
 	p.init.Do(func() {
-		pagerSize, err := page.ResolvePagerSize(p.source.s.Cfg, options...)
+		pagerSize, err := page.ResolvePagerSize(p.source.s.Conf, options...)
 		if err != nil {
 			initErr = err
 			return
diff --git a/hugolib/page__paths.go b/hugolib/page__paths.go
index 947cdde9d..72eac3182 100644
--- a/hugolib/page__paths.go
+++ b/hugolib/page__paths.go
@@ -128,8 +128,8 @@ func createTargetPathDescriptor(s *Site, p page.Page, pm *pageMeta) (page.Target
 		PathSpec:    d.PathSpec,
 		Kind:        p.Kind(),
 		Sections:    p.SectionsEntries(),
-		UglyURLs:    s.Info.uglyURLs(p),
-		ForcePrefix: s.h.IsMultihost() || alwaysInSubDir,
+		UglyURLs:    s.h.Conf.IsUglyURLs(p.Section()),
+		ForcePrefix: s.h.Conf.IsMultihost() || alwaysInSubDir,
 		Dir:         dir,
 		URL:         pm.urlPaths.URL,
 	}
diff --git a/hugolib/page__per_output.go b/hugolib/page__per_output.go
index 3e61a4513..4817d9a0c 100644
--- a/hugolib/page__per_output.go
+++ b/hugolib/page__per_output.go
@@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ func newPageContentOutput(p *pageState, po *pageOutput) (*pageContentOutput, err
 	})
 
 	// There may be recursive loops in shortcodes and render hooks.
-	cp.initMain = cp.initToC.BranchWithTimeout(p.s.siteCfg.timeout, func(ctx context.Context) (any, error) {
+	cp.initMain = cp.initToC.BranchWithTimeout(p.s.conf.C.Timeout, func(ctx context.Context) (any, error) {
 		return nil, initContent(ctx)
 	})
 
diff --git a/hugolib/page_kinds.go b/hugolib/page_kinds.go
index b63da1d13..6536ad6bb 100644
--- a/hugolib/page_kinds.go
+++ b/hugolib/page_kinds.go
@@ -29,9 +29,9 @@ const (
 
 	// The following are (currently) temporary nodes,
 	// i.e. nodes we create just to render in isolation.
-	kindRSS       = "RSS"
+	kindRSS       = "rss"
 	kindSitemap   = "sitemap"
-	kindRobotsTXT = "robotsTXT"
+	kindRobotsTXT = "robotstxt"
 	kind404       = "404"
 
 	pageResourceType = "page"
diff --git a/hugolib/page_permalink_test.go b/hugolib/page_permalink_test.go
index 7ea672330..bc89638d3 100644
--- a/hugolib/page_permalink_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/page_permalink_test.go
@@ -16,12 +16,11 @@ package hugolib
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"html/template"
-	"path/filepath"
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 )
 
 func TestPermalink(t *testing.T) {
@@ -68,28 +67,38 @@ func TestPermalink(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%s-%d", test.file, i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Parallel()
 			c := qt.New(t)
-			cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
-
+			cfg := config.New()
 			cfg.Set("uglyURLs", test.uglyURLs)
 			cfg.Set("canonifyURLs", test.canonifyURLs)
-			cfg.Set("baseURL", test.base)
 
-			pageContent := fmt.Sprintf(`---
+			files := fmt.Sprintf(`
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = %q
+-- content/%s --
+---
 title: Page
 slug: %q
-url: %q
+url: %q	
 output: ["HTML"]
 ---
-Content
-`, test.slug, test.url)
+`, test.base, test.file, test.slug, test.url)
 
-			writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", filepath.FromSlash(test.file)), pageContent)
+			if i > 0 {
+				t.Skip()
+			}
 
-			s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
-			c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
+			b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+				IntegrationTestConfig{
+					T:           t,
+					TxtarString: files,
+					BaseCfg:     cfg,
+				},
+			)
 
+			b.Build()
+			s := b.H.Sites[0]
+			c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 			p := s.RegularPages()[0]
-
 			u := p.Permalink()
 
 			expected := test.expectedAbs
diff --git a/hugolib/page_test.go b/hugolib/page_test.go
index 49617f17e..79b6401dc 100644
--- a/hugolib/page_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/page_test.go
@@ -24,7 +24,6 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/bep/clock"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/asciidocext"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/rst"
@@ -35,8 +34,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
 	"github.com/spf13/jwalterweatherman"
@@ -378,41 +375,36 @@ func testAllMarkdownEnginesForPages(t *testing.T,
 		}
 
 		t.Run(e.ext, func(t *testing.T) {
-			cfg, fs := newTestCfg(func(cfg config.Provider) error {
-				for k, v := range settings {
-					cfg.Set(k, v)
-				}
-				return nil
-			})
-
-			contentDir := "content"
-
-			if s := cfg.GetString("contentDir"); s != "" {
-				contentDir = s
+			cfg := config.New()
+			for k, v := range settings {
+				cfg.Set(k, v)
 			}
 
-			cfg.Set("security", map[string]any{
-				"exec": map[string]any{
-					"allow": []string{"^python$", "^rst2html.*", "^asciidoctor$"},
-				},
-			})
+			if s := cfg.GetString("contentDir"); s != "" && s != "content" {
+				panic("contentDir must be set to 'content' for this test")
+			}
 
-			var fileSourcePairs []string
+			files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+[security]
+[security.exec]
+allow = ['^python$', '^rst2html.*', '^asciidoctor$']
+`
 
 			for i, source := range pageSources {
-				fileSourcePairs = append(fileSourcePairs, fmt.Sprintf("p%d.%s", i, e.ext), source)
+				files += fmt.Sprintf("-- content/p%d.%s --\n%s\n", i, e.ext, source)
 			}
-
-			for i := 0; i < len(fileSourcePairs); i += 2 {
-				writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join(contentDir, fileSourcePairs[i]), fileSourcePairs[i+1])
-			}
-
-			// Add a content page for the home page
 			homePath := fmt.Sprintf("_index.%s", e.ext)
-			writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join(contentDir, homePath), homePage)
-
-			b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}).WithNothingAdded()
-			b.Build(BuildCfg{})
+			files += fmt.Sprintf("-- content/%s --\n%s\n", homePath, homePage)
+
+			b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+				IntegrationTestConfig{
+					T:           t,
+					TxtarString: files,
+					NeedsOsFS:   true,
+					BaseCfg:     cfg,
+				},
+			).Build()
 
 			s := b.H.Sites[0]
 
@@ -420,7 +412,7 @@ func testAllMarkdownEnginesForPages(t *testing.T,
 
 			assertFunc(t, e.ext, s.RegularPages())
 
-			home := s.Info.Home()
+			home := s.Home()
 			b.Assert(home, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 			b.Assert(home.File().Path(), qt.Equals, homePath)
 			b.Assert(content(home), qt.Contains, "Home Page Content")
@@ -435,10 +427,12 @@ func TestPageWithDelimiterForMarkdownThatCrossesBorder(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), simplePageWithSummaryDelimiterAndMarkdownThatCrossesBorder)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 
@@ -487,7 +481,7 @@ categories: ["cool stuff"]
 	for _, p := range s.Pages() {
 		checkDated(p, p.Kind())
 	}
-	checkDate(s.Info.LastChange(), "site")
+	checkDate(s.LastChange(), "site")
 }
 
 func TestPageDatesSections(t *testing.T) {
@@ -546,7 +540,7 @@ date: 2012-01-12
 	b.Assert(s.getPage("/with-index-no-date").Date().IsZero(), qt.Equals, true)
 	checkDate(s.getPage("/with-index-date"), 2018)
 
-	b.Assert(s.Site.LastChange().Year(), qt.Equals, 2018)
+	b.Assert(s.Site().LastChange().Year(), qt.Equals, 2018)
 }
 
 func TestCreateNewPage(t *testing.T) {
@@ -564,9 +558,7 @@ func TestCreateNewPage(t *testing.T) {
 		checkPageType(t, p, "page")
 	}
 
-	settings := map[string]any{
-		"contentDir": "mycontent",
-	}
+	settings := map[string]any{}
 
 	testAllMarkdownEnginesForPages(t, assertFunc, settings, simplePage)
 }
@@ -655,8 +647,10 @@ Simple Page With Some Date`
 // Issue #2601
 func TestPageRawContent(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "raw.md"), `---
 title: Raw
@@ -665,7 +659,7 @@ title: Raw
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), `{{ .RawContent }}`)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 	p := s.RegularPages()[0]
@@ -687,12 +681,14 @@ func TestPageWithShortCodeInSummary(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestTableOfContents(t *testing.T) {
-	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "tocpage.md"), pageWithToC)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 
@@ -981,12 +977,14 @@ summary: Summary (zh)
 
 func TestPageWithDate(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), simplePageRFC3339Date)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 
@@ -996,64 +994,6 @@ func TestPageWithDate(t *testing.T) {
 	checkPageDate(t, p, d)
 }
 
-func TestPageWithLastmodFromGitInfo(t *testing.T) {
-	if htesting.IsCI() {
-		// TODO(bep) figure out why this fails on GitHub actions.
-		t.Skip("Skip GitInfo test on CI")
-	}
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	wd, err := os.Getwd()
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	cfg.Set("workingDir", filepath.Join(wd, "testsite"))
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
-
-	cfg.Set("frontmatter", map[string]any{
-		"lastmod": []string{":git", "lastmod"},
-	})
-	cfg.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "en")
-
-	langConfig := map[string]any{
-		"en": map[string]any{
-			"weight":       1,
-			"languageName": "English",
-			"contentDir":   "content",
-		},
-		"nn": map[string]any{
-			"weight":       2,
-			"languageName": "Nynorsk",
-			"contentDir":   "content_nn",
-		},
-	}
-
-	cfg.Set("languages", langConfig)
-	cfg.Set("enableGitInfo", true)
-
-	b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}).WithNothingAdded()
-
-	b.Build(BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
-	h := b.H
-
-	c.Assert(len(h.Sites), qt.Equals, 2)
-
-	enSite := h.Sites[0]
-	c.Assert(len(enSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
-
-	// 2018-03-11 is the Git author date for testsite/content/first-post.md
-	c.Assert(enSite.RegularPages()[0].Lastmod().Format("2006-01-02"), qt.Equals, "2018-03-11")
-	c.Assert(enSite.RegularPages()[0].CodeOwners()[0], qt.Equals, "@bep")
-
-	nnSite := h.Sites[1]
-	c.Assert(len(nnSite.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
-
-	// 2018-08-11 is the Git author date for testsite/content_nn/first-post.md
-	c.Assert(nnSite.RegularPages()[0].Lastmod().Format("2006-01-02"), qt.Equals, "2018-08-11")
-	c.Assert(enSite.RegularPages()[0].CodeOwners()[0], qt.Equals, "@bep")
-}
-
 func TestPageWithFrontMatterConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, dateHandler := range []string{":filename", ":fileModTime"} {
 		dateHandler := dateHandler
@@ -1075,6 +1015,8 @@ Content
 			cfg.Set("frontmatter", map[string]any{
 				"date": []string{dateHandler, "date"},
 			})
+			configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 			c1 := filepath.Join("content", "section", "2012-02-21-noslug.md")
 			c2 := filepath.Join("content", "section", "2012-02-22-slug.md")
@@ -1087,7 +1029,7 @@ Content
 			c2fi, err := fs.Source.Stat(c2)
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-			b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}).WithNothingAdded()
+			b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}).WithNothingAdded()
 			b.Build(BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 			s := b.H.Sites[0]
@@ -1155,7 +1097,7 @@ func TestWordCountWithMainEnglishWithCJKRunes(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 
 		if p.Summary(context.Background()) != simplePageWithMainEnglishWithCJKRunesSummary {
-			t.Fatalf("[%s] incorrect Summary for content '%s'. expected %v, got %v", ext, p.Plain(context.Background()),
+			t.Fatalf("[%s] incorrect Summary for content '%s'. expected\n%v, got\n%v", ext, p.Plain(context.Background()),
 				simplePageWithMainEnglishWithCJKRunesSummary, p.Summary(context.Background()))
 		}
 	}
@@ -1230,6 +1172,8 @@ func TestPagePaths(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
 		cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
+		configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 		if test.hasPermalink {
 			cfg.Set("permalinks", siteParmalinksSetting)
@@ -1237,7 +1181,7 @@ func TestPagePaths(t *testing.T) {
 
 		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", filepath.FromSlash(test.path)), test.content)
 
-		s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+		s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 		c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 
 	}
@@ -1247,15 +1191,17 @@ func TestTranslationKey(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", filepath.FromSlash("sect/simple.no.md")), "---\ntitle: \"A1\"\ntranslationKey: \"k1\"\n---\nContent\n")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", filepath.FromSlash("sect/simple.en.md")), "---\ntitle: \"A2\"\n---\nContent\n")
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 2)
 
-	home := s.Info.Home()
+	home := s.Home()
 	c.Assert(home, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 	c.Assert(home.TranslationKey(), qt.Equals, "home")
 	c.Assert(s.RegularPages()[0].TranslationKey(), qt.Equals, "page/k1")
@@ -1270,10 +1216,12 @@ func TestChompBOM(t *testing.T) {
 	const utf8BOM = "\xef\xbb\xbf"
 
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.md"), utf8BOM+simplePage)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 
@@ -1284,7 +1232,7 @@ func TestChompBOM(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestPageWithEmoji(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, enableEmoji := range []bool{true, false} {
-		v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		v := config.New()
 		v.Set("enableEmoji", enableEmoji)
 
 		b := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithViper(v)
@@ -1613,7 +1561,6 @@ func TestPathIssues(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("disablePathToLower=%t,uglyURLs=%t", disablePathToLower, uglyURLs), func(t *testing.T) {
 				t.Parallel()
 				cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
-				th := newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
 				c := qt.New(t)
 
 				cfg.Set("permalinks", map[string]string{
@@ -1623,6 +1570,7 @@ func TestPathIssues(t *testing.T) {
 				cfg.Set("uglyURLs", uglyURLs)
 				cfg.Set("disablePathToLower", disablePathToLower)
 				cfg.Set("paginate", 1)
+				th, configs := newTestHelperFromProvider(cfg, fs, t)
 
 				writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), "<html><body>{{.Content}}</body></html>")
 				writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "list.html"),
@@ -1648,7 +1596,7 @@ tags:
 # doc1
 *some blog content*`))
 
-				s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+				s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 				c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 4)
 
diff --git a/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go b/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
index f88d2e4d2..2ec3718f0 100644
--- a/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
@@ -89,8 +89,11 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteRegular(t *testing.T) {
 						})
 
 						cfg.Set("uglyURLs", ugly)
+						configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
 
-						b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(c, deps.DepsCfg{Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(), Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}).WithNothingAdded()
+						c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
+						b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(c, deps.DepsCfg{Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(), Fs: fs, Configs: configs}).WithNothingAdded()
 
 						b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
@@ -150,7 +153,7 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteRegular(t *testing.T) {
 						c.Assert(leafBundle1.Section(), qt.Equals, "b")
 						sectionB := s.getPage(page.KindSection, "b")
 						c.Assert(sectionB, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-						home := s.Info.Home()
+						home := s.Home()
 						c.Assert(home.BundleType(), qt.Equals, files.ContentClassBranch)
 
 						// This is a root bundle and should live in the "home section"
@@ -278,8 +281,10 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteMultilingual(t *testing.T) {
 				c := qt.New(t)
 				fs, cfg := newTestBundleSourcesMultilingual(t)
 				cfg.Set("uglyURLs", ugly)
+				configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+				c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-				b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}).WithNothingAdded()
+				b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}).WithNothingAdded()
 				b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 
 				sites := b.H
@@ -349,28 +354,16 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteMultilingual(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestMultilingualDisableDefaultLanguage(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	_, cfg := newTestBundleSourcesMultilingual(t)
-	cfg.Set("disableLanguages", []string{"en"})
-	l := configLoader{cfg: cfg}
-	err := l.applyConfigDefaults()
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	err = l.loadLanguageSettings(nil)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(err.Error(), qt.Contains, "cannot disable default language")
-}
-
 func TestMultilingualDisableLanguage(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	fs, cfg := newTestBundleSourcesMultilingual(t)
 	cfg.Set("disableLanguages", []string{"nn"})
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}).WithNothingAdded()
+	b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}).WithNothingAdded()
 	b.Build(BuildCfg{})
 	sites := b.H
 
@@ -401,9 +394,10 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteWitSymbolicLinksInContent(t *testing.T) {
 	// We need to use the OS fs for this.
 	workingDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugosym")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
 	contentDirName := "content"
 
@@ -439,6 +433,8 @@ func TestPageBundlerSiteWitSymbolicLinksInContent(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
 	cfg.Set("contentDir", contentDirName)
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "https://example.com")
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	layout := `{{ .Title }}|{{ .Content }}`
 	pageContent := `---
@@ -450,8 +446,8 @@ TheContent.
 `
 
 	b := newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t, deps.DepsCfg{
-		Fs:  fs,
-		Cfg: cfg,
+		Fs:      fs,
+		Configs: configs,
 	})
 
 	b.WithTemplates(
@@ -504,6 +500,8 @@ func TestPageBundlerHeadless(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 	cfg.Set("contentDir", "base")
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "https://example.com")
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	pageContent := `---
 title: "Bundle Galore"
@@ -538,7 +536,7 @@ HEADLESS {{< myShort >}}
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join(workDir, "base", "b", "l2.png"), "PNG image")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join(workDir, "base", "b", "p1.md"), pageContent)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 
@@ -562,7 +560,7 @@ HEADLESS {{< myShort >}}
 	c.Assert(content(p), qt.Contains, "SHORTCODE")
 	c.Assert(p.Name(), qt.Equals, "p1.md")
 
-	th := newTestHelper(s.Cfg, s.Fs, t)
+	th := newTestHelper(s.conf, s.Fs, t)
 
 	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/s1/index.html"), "TheContent")
 	th.assertFileContent(filepath.FromSlash("public/s1/l1.png"), "PNG")
@@ -1322,9 +1320,10 @@ func TestPageBundlerHome(t *testing.T) {
 	workDir, clean, err := htesting.CreateTempDir(hugofs.Os, "hugo-bundler-home")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.Os, cfg)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
 	os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "content"), 0777)
 
diff --git a/hugolib/pagecollections_test.go b/hugolib/pagecollections_test.go
index d664b7f4e..abdfb9619 100644
--- a/hugolib/pagecollections_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/pagecollections_test.go
@@ -41,13 +41,18 @@ func BenchmarkGetPage(b *testing.B) {
 		r       = rand.New(rand.NewSource(time.Now().UnixNano()))
 	)
 
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	if err != nil {
+		b.Fatal(err)
+	}
+
 	for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
 		for j := 0; j < 100; j++ {
 			writeSource(b, fs, filepath.Join("content", fmt.Sprintf("sect%d", i), fmt.Sprintf("page%d.md", j)), "CONTENT")
 		}
 	}
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(b, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(b, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	pagePaths := make([]string, b.N)
 
@@ -76,6 +81,11 @@ func createGetPageRegularBenchmarkSite(t testing.TB) *Site {
 		cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
 	)
 
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+
 	pc := func(title string) string {
 		return fmt.Sprintf(pageCollectionsPageTemplate, title)
 	}
@@ -87,7 +97,7 @@ func createGetPageRegularBenchmarkSite(t testing.TB) *Site {
 		}
 	}
 
-	return buildSingleSite(c, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	return buildSingleSite(c, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 }
 
 func TestBenchmarkGetPageRegular(t *testing.T) {
@@ -174,6 +184,9 @@ func TestGetPage(t *testing.T) {
 		c       = qt.New(t)
 	)
 
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 	pc := func(title string) string {
 		return fmt.Sprintf(pageCollectionsPageTemplate, title)
 	}
@@ -210,7 +223,7 @@ func TestGetPage(t *testing.T) {
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "section_bundle_overlap", "_index.md"), pc("index overlap section"))
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "section_bundle_overlap_bundle", "index.md"), pc("index overlap bundle"))
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	sec3, err := s.getPageNew(nil, "/sect3")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -294,7 +307,7 @@ func TestGetPage(t *testing.T) {
 			if test.context == nil {
 				for _, ref := range test.pathVariants {
 					args := append([]string{test.kind}, ref)
-					page, err := s.Info.GetPage(args...)
+					page, err := s.GetPage(args...)
 					test.check(page, err, errorMsg, c)
 				}
 			}
diff --git a/hugolib/pages_capture.go b/hugolib/pages_capture.go
index b72ae7e85..8a2b875ea 100644
--- a/hugolib/pages_capture.go
+++ b/hugolib/pages_capture.go
@@ -222,8 +222,7 @@ func (c *pagesCollector) getLang(fi hugofs.FileMetaInfo) string {
 	if lang != "" {
 		return lang
 	}
-
-	return c.sp.DefaultContentLanguage
+	return c.sp.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguage()
 }
 
 func (c *pagesCollector) addToBundle(info hugofs.FileMetaInfo, btyp bundleDirType, bundles pageBundles) error {
@@ -240,7 +239,7 @@ func (c *pagesCollector) addToBundle(info hugofs.FileMetaInfo, btyp bundleDirTyp
 			found  bool
 		)
 
-		source, found = bundles[c.sp.DefaultContentLanguage]
+		source, found = bundles[c.sp.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguage()]
 		if !found {
 			for _, b := range bundles {
 				source = b
diff --git a/hugolib/pages_capture_test.go b/hugolib/pages_capture_test.go
index ea2ef4e1e..8c1023a15 100644
--- a/hugolib/pages_capture_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/pages_capture_test.go
@@ -19,24 +19,22 @@ import (
 	"path/filepath"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
 func TestPagesCapture(t *testing.T) {
-	cfg, hfs := newTestCfg()
-	fs := hfs.Source
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+
 	writeFile := func(filename string) {
-		c.Assert(afero.WriteFile(fs, filepath.FromSlash(filename), []byte(fmt.Sprintf("content-%s", filename)), 0755), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join("content", filepath.FromSlash(filename)), []byte(fmt.Sprintf("content-%s", filename)), 0755), qt.IsNil)
 	}
 
 	writeFile("_index.md")
@@ -47,19 +45,20 @@ func TestPagesCapture(t *testing.T) {
 	writeFile("blog/images/sunset.png")
 	writeFile("pages/page1.md")
 	writeFile("pages/page2.md")
-	writeFile("pages/page.png")
 
-	ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(hugofs.NewFrom(fs, cfg), cfg, loggers.NewErrorLogger())
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	sourceSpec := source.NewSourceSpec(ps, nil, fs)
+	cfg := config.New()
+	d := testconfig.GetTestDeps(afs, cfg)
+	sourceSpec := source.NewSourceSpec(d.PathSpec, nil, d.BaseFs.Content.Fs)
 
 	t.Run("Collect", func(t *testing.T) {
 		c := qt.New(t)
 		proc := &testPagesCollectorProcessor{}
 		coll := newPagesCollector(sourceSpec, nil, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), nil, proc)
 		c.Assert(coll.Collect(), qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(len(proc.items), qt.Equals, 4)
+		// 2 bundles, 3 pages.
+		c.Assert(len(proc.items), qt.Equals, 5)
 	})
+
 }
 
 type testPagesCollectorProcessor struct {
diff --git a/hugolib/pages_process.go b/hugolib/pages_process.go
index 196a566f0..b0c04244b 100644
--- a/hugolib/pages_process.go
+++ b/hugolib/pages_process.go
@@ -199,6 +199,5 @@ func (p *sitePagesProcessor) doProcess(item any) error {
 }
 
 func (p *sitePagesProcessor) shouldSkip(fim hugofs.FileMetaInfo) bool {
-	// TODO(ep) unify
-	return p.m.s.SourceSpec.DisabledLanguages[fim.Meta().Lang]
+	return p.m.s.conf.IsLangDisabled(fim.Meta().Lang)
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/paths/paths.go b/hugolib/paths/paths.go
index e80215b92..9e15d3ab4 100644
--- a/hugolib/paths/paths.go
+++ b/hugolib/paths/paths.go
@@ -14,14 +14,12 @@
 package paths
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 
 	hpaths "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
@@ -31,100 +29,26 @@ var FilePathSeparator = string(filepath.Separator)
 
 type Paths struct {
 	Fs  *hugofs.Fs
-	Cfg config.Provider
-
-	BaseURL
-	BaseURLString       string
-	BaseURLNoPathString string
-
-	// If the baseURL contains a base path, e.g. https://example.com/docs, then "/docs" will be the BasePath.
-	BasePath string
-
-	// Directories
-	// TODO(bep) when we have trimmed down most of the dirs usage outside of this package, make
-	// these into an interface.
-	ThemesDir  string
-	WorkingDir string
+	Cfg config.AllProvider
 
 	// Directories to store Resource related artifacts.
 	AbsResourcesDir string
 
 	AbsPublishDir string
 
-	// pagination path handling
-	PaginatePath string
-
 	// When in multihost mode, this returns a list of base paths below PublishDir
 	// for each language.
 	MultihostTargetBasePaths []string
-
-	DisablePathToLower bool
-	RemovePathAccents  bool
-	UglyURLs           bool
-	CanonifyURLs       bool
-
-	Language              *langs.Language
-	Languages             langs.Languages
-	LanguagesDefaultFirst langs.Languages
-
-	// The PathSpec looks up its config settings in both the current language
-	// and then in the global Viper config.
-	// Some settings, the settings listed below, does not make sense to be set
-	// on per-language-basis. We have no good way of protecting against this
-	// other than a "white-list". See language.go.
-	defaultContentLanguageInSubdir bool
-	DefaultContentLanguage         string
-	multilingual                   bool
-
-	AllModules    modules.Modules
-	ModulesClient *modules.Client
 }
 
-func New(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (*Paths, error) {
-	baseURLstr := cfg.GetString("baseURL")
-	baseURL, err := newBaseURLFromString(baseURLstr)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("Failed to create baseURL from %q:: %w", baseURLstr, err)
-	}
-
-	contentDir := filepath.Clean(cfg.GetString("contentDir"))
-	workingDir := filepath.Clean(cfg.GetString("workingDir"))
-	resourceDir := filepath.Clean(cfg.GetString("resourceDir"))
-	publishDir := filepath.Clean(cfg.GetString("publishDir"))
-
+func New(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.AllProvider) (*Paths, error) {
+	bcfg := cfg.BaseConfig()
+	publishDir := bcfg.PublishDir
 	if publishDir == "" {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("publishDir not set")
-	}
-
-	defaultContentLanguage := cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage")
-
-	var (
-		language              *langs.Language
-		languages             langs.Languages
-		languagesDefaultFirst langs.Languages
-	)
-
-	if l, ok := cfg.(*langs.Language); ok {
-		language = l
-	}
-
-	if l, ok := cfg.Get("languagesSorted").(langs.Languages); ok {
-		languages = l
-	}
-
-	if l, ok := cfg.Get("languagesSortedDefaultFirst").(langs.Languages); ok {
-		languagesDefaultFirst = l
+		panic("publishDir not set")
 	}
 
-	//
-
-	if len(languages) == 0 {
-		// We have some old tests that does not test the entire chain, hence
-		// they have no languages. So create one so we get the proper filesystem.
-		languages = langs.Languages{&langs.Language{Lang: "en", Cfg: cfg, ContentDir: contentDir}}
-	}
-
-	absPublishDir := hpaths.AbsPathify(workingDir, publishDir)
+	absPublishDir := hpaths.AbsPathify(bcfg.WorkingDir, publishDir)
 	if !strings.HasSuffix(absPublishDir, FilePathSeparator) {
 		absPublishDir += FilePathSeparator
 	}
@@ -132,7 +56,7 @@ func New(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (*Paths, error) {
 	if absPublishDir == "//" {
 		absPublishDir = FilePathSeparator
 	}
-	absResourcesDir := hpaths.AbsPathify(workingDir, resourceDir)
+	absResourcesDir := hpaths.AbsPathify(bcfg.WorkingDir, cfg.Dirs().ResourceDir)
 	if !strings.HasSuffix(absResourcesDir, FilePathSeparator) {
 		absResourcesDir += FilePathSeparator
 	}
@@ -141,76 +65,45 @@ func New(fs *hugofs.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (*Paths, error) {
 	}
 
 	var multihostTargetBasePaths []string
-	if languages.IsMultihost() {
-		for _, l := range languages {
+	if cfg.IsMultihost() && len(cfg.Languages()) > 1 {
+		for _, l := range cfg.Languages() {
 			multihostTargetBasePaths = append(multihostTargetBasePaths, l.Lang)
 		}
 	}
 
-	var baseURLString = baseURL.String()
-	var baseURLNoPath = baseURL.URL()
-	baseURLNoPath.Path = ""
-	var baseURLNoPathString = baseURLNoPath.String()
-
 	p := &Paths{
-		Fs:                  fs,
-		Cfg:                 cfg,
-		BaseURL:             baseURL,
-		BaseURLString:       baseURLString,
-		BaseURLNoPathString: baseURLNoPathString,
-
-		DisablePathToLower: cfg.GetBool("disablePathToLower"),
-		RemovePathAccents:  cfg.GetBool("removePathAccents"),
-		UglyURLs:           cfg.GetBool("uglyURLs"),
-		CanonifyURLs:       cfg.GetBool("canonifyURLs"),
-
-		ThemesDir:  cfg.GetString("themesDir"),
-		WorkingDir: workingDir,
-
-		AbsResourcesDir: absResourcesDir,
-		AbsPublishDir:   absPublishDir,
-
-		multilingual:                   cfg.GetBool("multilingual"),
-		defaultContentLanguageInSubdir: cfg.GetBool("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir"),
-		DefaultContentLanguage:         defaultContentLanguage,
-
-		Language:                 language,
-		Languages:                languages,
-		LanguagesDefaultFirst:    languagesDefaultFirst,
+		Fs:                       fs,
+		Cfg:                      cfg,
+		AbsResourcesDir:          absResourcesDir,
+		AbsPublishDir:            absPublishDir,
 		MultihostTargetBasePaths: multihostTargetBasePaths,
-
-		PaginatePath: cfg.GetString("paginatePath"),
-	}
-
-	if cfg.IsSet("allModules") {
-		p.AllModules = cfg.Get("allModules").(modules.Modules)
-	}
-
-	if cfg.IsSet("modulesClient") {
-		p.ModulesClient = cfg.Get("modulesClient").(*modules.Client)
 	}
 
 	return p, nil
 }
 
+func (p *Paths) AllModules() modules.Modules {
+	return p.Cfg.GetConfigSection("activeModules").(modules.Modules)
+}
+
 // GetBasePath returns any path element in baseURL if needed.
 func (p *Paths) GetBasePath(isRelativeURL bool) string {
-	if isRelativeURL && p.CanonifyURLs {
+	if isRelativeURL && p.Cfg.CanonifyURLs() {
 		// The baseURL will be prepended later.
 		return ""
 	}
-	return p.BasePath
+	return p.Cfg.BaseURL().BasePath
 }
 
 func (p *Paths) Lang() string {
-	if p == nil || p.Language == nil {
+	if p == nil || p.Cfg.Language() == nil {
 		return ""
 	}
-	return p.Language.Lang
+	return p.Cfg.Language().Lang
 }
 
 func (p *Paths) GetTargetLanguageBasePath() string {
-	if p.Languages.IsMultihost() {
+	if len(p.Cfg.Languages()) > 1 {
 		// In a multihost configuration all assets will be published below the language code.
 		return p.Lang()
 	}
@@ -218,21 +111,19 @@ func (p *Paths) GetTargetLanguageBasePath() string {
 }
 
 func (p *Paths) GetURLLanguageBasePath() string {
-	if p.Languages.IsMultihost() {
+	if len(p.Cfg.Languages()) > 1 {
 		return ""
 	}
 	return p.GetLanguagePrefix()
 }
 
 func (p *Paths) GetLanguagePrefix() string {
-	if !p.multilingual {
+	if len(p.Cfg.Languages()) < 2 {
 		return ""
 	}
-
-	defaultLang := p.DefaultContentLanguage
-	defaultInSubDir := p.defaultContentLanguageInSubdir
-
-	currentLang := p.Language.Lang
+	defaultLang := p.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguage()
+	defaultInSubDir := p.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir()
+	currentLang := p.Cfg.Language().Lang
 	if currentLang == "" || (currentLang == defaultLang && !defaultInSubDir) {
 		return ""
 	}
@@ -241,15 +132,15 @@ func (p *Paths) GetLanguagePrefix() string {
 
 // GetLangSubDir returns the given language's subdir if needed.
 func (p *Paths) GetLangSubDir(lang string) string {
-	if !p.multilingual {
+	if len(p.Cfg.Languages()) < 2 {
 		return ""
 	}
 
-	if p.Languages.IsMultihost() {
+	if p.Cfg.IsMultihost() {
 		return ""
 	}
 
-	if lang == "" || (lang == p.DefaultContentLanguage && !p.defaultContentLanguageInSubdir) {
+	if lang == "" || (lang == p.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguage() && !p.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir()) {
 		return ""
 	}
 
@@ -259,7 +150,7 @@ func (p *Paths) GetLangSubDir(lang string) string {
 // AbsPathify creates an absolute path if given a relative path. If already
 // absolute, the path is just cleaned.
 func (p *Paths) AbsPathify(inPath string) string {
-	return hpaths.AbsPathify(p.WorkingDir, inPath)
+	return hpaths.AbsPathify(p.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir, inPath)
 }
 
 // RelPathify trims any WorkingDir prefix from the given filename. If
@@ -270,5 +161,5 @@ func (p *Paths) RelPathify(filename string) string {
 		return filename
 	}
 
-	return strings.TrimPrefix(strings.TrimPrefix(filename, p.WorkingDir), FilePathSeparator)
+	return strings.TrimPrefix(strings.TrimPrefix(filename, p.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir), FilePathSeparator)
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/paths/paths_test.go b/hugolib/paths/paths_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index cd9d0593f..000000000
--- a/hugolib/paths/paths_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,50 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package paths
-
-import (
-	"testing"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-)
-
-func TestNewPaths(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
-
-	v.Set("languages", map[string]any{
-		"no": map[string]any{},
-		"en": map[string]any{},
-	})
-	v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
-	v.Set("defaultContentLanguage", "no")
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	v.Set("workingDir", "work")
-	v.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
-
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
-
-	p, err := New(fs, v)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	c.Assert(p.defaultContentLanguageInSubdir, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(p.DefaultContentLanguage, qt.Equals, "no")
-	c.Assert(p.multilingual, qt.Equals, true)
-}
diff --git a/hugolib/prune_resources.go b/hugolib/prune_resources.go
index bf5a1ef2f..50868e872 100644
--- a/hugolib/prune_resources.go
+++ b/hugolib/prune_resources.go
@@ -15,5 +15,5 @@ package hugolib
 
 // GC requires a build first and must run on it's own. It is not thread safe.
 func (h *HugoSites) GC() (int, error) {
-	return h.Deps.FileCaches.Prune()
+	return h.Deps.ResourceSpec.FileCaches.Prune()
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go b/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go
index c58795ca4..2035c235f 100644
--- a/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/robotstxt_test.go
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ const robotTxtTemplate = `User-agent: Googlebot
 func TestRobotsTXTOutput(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub/")
 	cfg.Set("enableRobotsTXT", true)
 
diff --git a/hugolib/rss_test.go b/hugolib/rss_test.go
index 5da8ea0d6..ba2491c66 100644
--- a/hugolib/rss_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/rss_test.go
@@ -23,24 +23,22 @@ import (
 
 func TestRSSOutput(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	var (
-		cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-		th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-	)
 
 	rssLimit := len(weightedSources) - 1
 
-	rssURI := "index.xml"
-
+	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub/")
 	cfg.Set("title", "RSSTest")
 	cfg.Set("rssLimit", rssLimit)
+	th, configs := newTestHelperFromProvider(cfg, fs, t)
+
+	rssURI := "index.xml"
 
 	for _, src := range weightedSources {
 		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect", src[0]), src[1])
 	}
 
-	buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	// Home RSS
 	th.assertFileContent(filepath.Join("public", rssURI), "<?xml", "rss version", "RSSTest")
diff --git a/hugolib/shortcode_test.go b/hugolib/shortcode_test.go
index 998608a55..a95b38967 100644
--- a/hugolib/shortcode_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/shortcode_test.go
@@ -758,7 +758,7 @@ title: "Hugo Rocks!"
 func TestShortcodeEmoji(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("enableEmoji", true)
 
 	builder := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithViper(v)
@@ -822,7 +822,7 @@ Get: {{ printf "%v (%T)" $b1 $b1 | safeHTML }}
 func TestShortcodeRef(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("baseURL", "https://example.org")
 
 	builder := newTestSitesBuilder(t).WithViper(v)
@@ -935,6 +935,7 @@ func TestShortcodeMarkdownOutputFormat(t *testing.T) {
 title: "p1"
 ---
 {{< foo >}}
+# The below would have failed using the HTML template parser.
 -- layouts/shortcodes/foo.md --
 §§§
 <x
diff --git a/hugolib/site.go b/hugolib/site.go
index 1b0c48cbc..b055cf690 100644
--- a/hugolib/site.go
+++ b/hugolib/site.go
@@ -16,7 +16,6 @@ package hugolib
 import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
-	"html/template"
 	"io"
 	"log"
 	"mime"
@@ -26,7 +25,6 @@ import (
 	"regexp"
 	"runtime"
 	"sort"
-	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -34,23 +32,16 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugio"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
 	"golang.org/x/text/unicode/norm"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/constants"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter/hooks"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/files"
@@ -59,7 +50,6 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/text"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/publisher"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
@@ -69,110 +59,18 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/lazy"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-
 	"github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify"
 	bp "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/bufferpool"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/navigation"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/related"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page/pagemeta"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-	"github.com/spf13/cast"
 )
 
-// Site contains all the information relevant for constructing a static
-// site.  The basic flow of information is as follows:
-//
-// 1. A list of Files is parsed and then converted into Pages.
-//
-//  2. Pages contain sections (based on the file they were generated from),
-//     aliases and slugs (included in a pages frontmatter) which are the
-//     various targets that will get generated.  There will be canonical
-//     listing.  The canonical path can be overruled based on a pattern.
-//
-//  3. Taxonomies are created via configuration and will present some aspect of
-//     the final page and typically a perm url.
-//
-//  4. All Pages are passed through a template based on their desired
-//     layout based on numerous different elements.
-//
-// 5. The entire collection of files is written to disk.
-type Site struct {
-
-	// The owning container. When multiple languages, there will be multiple
-	// sites .
-	h *HugoSites
-
-	*PageCollections
-
-	taxonomies page.TaxonomyList
-
-	Sections page.Taxonomy
-	Info     *SiteInfo
-
-	language   *langs.Language
-	siteBucket *pagesMapBucket
-
-	siteCfg siteConfigHolder
-
-	disabledKinds map[string]bool
-
-	// Output formats defined in site config per Page Kind, or some defaults
-	// if not set.
-	// Output formats defined in Page front matter will override these.
-	outputFormats map[string]output.Formats
-
-	// All the output formats and media types available for this site.
-	// These values will be merged from the Hugo defaults, the site config and,
-	// finally, the language settings.
-	outputFormatsConfig output.Formats
-	mediaTypesConfig    media.Types
-
-	siteConfigConfig SiteConfig
-
-	// How to handle page front matter.
-	frontmatterHandler pagemeta.FrontMatterHandler
-
-	// We render each site for all the relevant output formats in serial with
-	// this rendering context pointing to the current one.
-	rc *siteRenderingContext
-
-	// The output formats that we need to render this site in. This slice
-	// will be fixed once set.
-	// This will be the union of Site.Pages' outputFormats.
-	// This slice will be sorted.
-	renderFormats output.Formats
-
-	// Logger etc.
-	*deps.Deps `json:"-"`
-
-	// The func used to title case titles.
-	titleFunc func(s string) string
-
-	relatedDocsHandler *page.RelatedDocsHandler
-	siteRefLinker
-
-	publisher publisher.Publisher
-
-	menus navigation.Menus
-
-	// Shortcut to the home page. Note that this may be nil if
-	// home page, for some odd reason, is disabled.
-	home *pageState
-
-	// The last modification date of this site.
-	lastmod time.Time
-
-	// Lazily loaded site dependencies
-	init *siteInit
-}
-
 func (s *Site) Taxonomies() page.TaxonomyList {
 	s.init.taxonomies.Do(context.Background())
 	return s.taxonomies
@@ -193,7 +91,7 @@ func (t taxonomiesConfig) Values() []viewName {
 }
 
 type siteConfigHolder struct {
-	sitemap          config.Sitemap
+	sitemap          config.SitemapConfig
 	taxonomiesConfig taxonomiesConfig
 	timeout          time.Duration
 	hasCJKLanguage   bool
@@ -336,8 +234,13 @@ func (s *Site) Menus() navigation.Menus {
 func (s *Site) initRenderFormats() {
 	formatSet := make(map[string]bool)
 	formats := output.Formats{}
+	rssDisabled := !s.conf.IsKindEnabled("rss")
 	s.pageMap.pageTrees.WalkRenderable(func(s string, n *contentNode) bool {
 		for _, f := range n.p.m.configuredOutputFormats {
+			if rssDisabled && f.Name == "rss" {
+				// legacy
+				continue
+			}
 			if !formatSet[f.Name] {
 				formats = append(formats, f)
 				formatSet[f.Name] = true
@@ -348,7 +251,7 @@ func (s *Site) initRenderFormats() {
 
 	// Add the per kind configured output formats
 	for _, kind := range allKindsInPages {
-		if siteFormats, found := s.outputFormats[kind]; found {
+		if siteFormats, found := s.conf.C.KindOutputFormats[kind]; found {
 			for _, f := range siteFormats {
 				if !formatSet[f.Name] {
 					formats = append(formats, f)
@@ -374,443 +277,7 @@ func (s *Site) isEnabled(kind string) bool {
 	if kind == kindUnknown {
 		panic("Unknown kind")
 	}
-	return !s.disabledKinds[kind]
-}
-
-// reset returns a new Site prepared for rebuild.
-func (s *Site) reset() *Site {
-	return &Site{
-		Deps:                s.Deps,
-		disabledKinds:       s.disabledKinds,
-		titleFunc:           s.titleFunc,
-		relatedDocsHandler:  s.relatedDocsHandler.Clone(),
-		siteRefLinker:       s.siteRefLinker,
-		outputFormats:       s.outputFormats,
-		rc:                  s.rc,
-		outputFormatsConfig: s.outputFormatsConfig,
-		frontmatterHandler:  s.frontmatterHandler,
-		mediaTypesConfig:    s.mediaTypesConfig,
-		language:            s.language,
-		siteBucket:          s.siteBucket,
-		h:                   s.h,
-		publisher:           s.publisher,
-		siteConfigConfig:    s.siteConfigConfig,
-		init:                s.init,
-		PageCollections:     s.PageCollections,
-		siteCfg:             s.siteCfg,
-	}
-}
-
-// newSite creates a new site with the given configuration.
-func newSite(cfg deps.DepsCfg) (*Site, error) {
-	if cfg.Language == nil {
-		cfg.Language = langs.NewDefaultLanguage(cfg.Cfg)
-	}
-	if cfg.Logger == nil {
-		panic("logger must be set")
-	}
-
-	ignoreErrors := cast.ToStringSlice(cfg.Language.Get("ignoreErrors"))
-	ignorableLogger := loggers.NewIgnorableLogger(cfg.Logger, ignoreErrors...)
-
-	disabledKinds := make(map[string]bool)
-	for _, disabled := range cast.ToStringSlice(cfg.Language.Get("disableKinds")) {
-		disabledKinds[disabled] = true
-	}
-
-	if disabledKinds["taxonomyTerm"] {
-		// Correct from the value it had before Hugo 0.73.0.
-		if disabledKinds[page.KindTaxonomy] {
-			disabledKinds[page.KindTerm] = true
-		} else {
-			disabledKinds[page.KindTaxonomy] = true
-		}
-
-		delete(disabledKinds, "taxonomyTerm")
-	} else if disabledKinds[page.KindTaxonomy] && !disabledKinds[page.KindTerm] {
-		// This is a potentially ambiguous situation. It may be correct.
-		ignorableLogger.Errorsf(constants.ErrIDAmbigousDisableKindTaxonomy, `You have the value 'taxonomy' in the disabledKinds list. In Hugo 0.73.0 we fixed these to be what most people expect (taxonomy and term).
-But this also means that your site configuration may not do what you expect. If it is correct, you can suppress this message by following the instructions below.`)
-	}
-
-	var (
-		mediaTypesConfig    []map[string]any
-		outputFormatsConfig []map[string]any
-
-		siteOutputFormatsConfig output.Formats
-		siteMediaTypesConfig    media.Types
-		err                     error
-	)
-
-	// Add language last, if set, so it gets precedence.
-	for _, cfg := range []config.Provider{cfg.Cfg, cfg.Language} {
-		if cfg.IsSet("mediaTypes") {
-			mediaTypesConfig = append(mediaTypesConfig, cfg.GetStringMap("mediaTypes"))
-		}
-		if cfg.IsSet("outputFormats") {
-			outputFormatsConfig = append(outputFormatsConfig, cfg.GetStringMap("outputFormats"))
-		}
-	}
-
-	siteMediaTypesConfig, err = media.DecodeTypes(mediaTypesConfig...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	siteOutputFormatsConfig, err = output.DecodeFormats(siteMediaTypesConfig, outputFormatsConfig...)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	rssDisabled := disabledKinds[kindRSS]
-	if rssDisabled {
-		// Legacy
-		tmp := siteOutputFormatsConfig[:0]
-		for _, x := range siteOutputFormatsConfig {
-			if !strings.EqualFold(x.Name, "rss") {
-				tmp = append(tmp, x)
-			}
-		}
-		siteOutputFormatsConfig = tmp
-	}
-
-	var siteOutputs map[string]any
-	if cfg.Language.IsSet("outputs") {
-		siteOutputs = cfg.Language.GetStringMap("outputs")
-
-		// Check and correct taxonomy kinds vs pre Hugo 0.73.0.
-		v1, hasTaxonomyTerm := siteOutputs["taxonomyterm"]
-		v2, hasTaxonomy := siteOutputs[page.KindTaxonomy]
-		_, hasTerm := siteOutputs[page.KindTerm]
-		if hasTaxonomy && hasTaxonomyTerm {
-			siteOutputs[page.KindTaxonomy] = v1
-			siteOutputs[page.KindTerm] = v2
-			delete(siteOutputs, "taxonomyTerm")
-		} else if hasTaxonomy && !hasTerm {
-			// This is a potentially ambiguous situation. It may be correct.
-			ignorableLogger.Errorsf(constants.ErrIDAmbigousOutputKindTaxonomy, `You have configured output formats for 'taxonomy' in your site configuration. In Hugo 0.73.0 we fixed these to be what most people expect (taxonomy and term).
-But this also means that your site configuration may not do what you expect. If it is correct, you can suppress this message by following the instructions below.`)
-		}
-		if !hasTaxonomy && hasTaxonomyTerm {
-			siteOutputs[page.KindTaxonomy] = v1
-			delete(siteOutputs, "taxonomyterm")
-		}
-	}
-
-	outputFormats, err := createSiteOutputFormats(siteOutputFormatsConfig, siteOutputs, rssDisabled)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	taxonomies := cfg.Language.GetStringMapString("taxonomies")
-
-	var relatedContentConfig related.Config
-
-	if cfg.Language.IsSet("related") {
-		relatedContentConfig, err = related.DecodeConfig(cfg.Language.GetParams("related"))
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to decode related config: %w", err)
-		}
-	} else {
-		relatedContentConfig = related.DefaultConfig
-		if _, found := taxonomies["tag"]; found {
-			relatedContentConfig.Add(related.IndexConfig{Name: "tags", Weight: 80})
-		}
-	}
-
-	titleFunc := helpers.GetTitleFunc(cfg.Language.GetString("titleCaseStyle"))
-
-	frontMatterHandler, err := pagemeta.NewFrontmatterHandler(cfg.Logger, cfg.Cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	timeout := 30 * time.Second
-	if cfg.Language.IsSet("timeout") {
-		v := cfg.Language.Get("timeout")
-		d, err := types.ToDurationE(v)
-		if err == nil {
-			timeout = d
-		}
-	}
-
-	siteConfig := siteConfigHolder{
-		sitemap:          config.DecodeSitemap(config.Sitemap{Priority: -1, Filename: "sitemap.xml"}, cfg.Language.GetStringMap("sitemap")),
-		taxonomiesConfig: taxonomies,
-		timeout:          timeout,
-		hasCJKLanguage:   cfg.Language.GetBool("hasCJKLanguage"),
-		enableEmoji:      cfg.Language.Cfg.GetBool("enableEmoji"),
-	}
-
-	var siteBucket *pagesMapBucket
-	if cfg.Language.IsSet("cascade") {
-		var err error
-		cascade, err := page.DecodeCascade(cfg.Language.Get("cascade"))
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to decode cascade config: %s", err)
-		}
-
-		siteBucket = &pagesMapBucket{
-			cascade: cascade,
-		}
-
-	}
-
-	s := &Site{
-		language:      cfg.Language,
-		siteBucket:    siteBucket,
-		disabledKinds: disabledKinds,
-
-		outputFormats:       outputFormats,
-		outputFormatsConfig: siteOutputFormatsConfig,
-		mediaTypesConfig:    siteMediaTypesConfig,
-
-		siteCfg: siteConfig,
-
-		titleFunc: titleFunc,
-
-		rc: &siteRenderingContext{output.HTMLFormat},
-
-		frontmatterHandler: frontMatterHandler,
-		relatedDocsHandler: page.NewRelatedDocsHandler(relatedContentConfig),
-	}
-
-	s.prepareInits()
-
-	return s, nil
-}
-
-// NewSite creates a new site with the given dependency configuration.
-// The site will have a template system loaded and ready to use.
-// Note: This is mainly used in single site tests.
-func NewSite(cfg deps.DepsCfg) (*Site, error) {
-	s, err := newSite(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	var l configLoader
-	if err = l.applyDeps(cfg, s); err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	return s, nil
-}
-
-// NewSiteDefaultLang creates a new site in the default language.
-// The site will have a template system loaded and ready to use.
-// Note: This is mainly used in single site tests.
-// TODO(bep) test refactor -- remove
-func NewSiteDefaultLang(withTemplate ...func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error) (*Site, error) {
-	l := configLoader{cfg: config.New()}
-	if err := l.applyConfigDefaults(); err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	return newSiteForLang(langs.NewDefaultLanguage(l.cfg), withTemplate...)
-}
-
-// NewEnglishSite creates a new site in English language.
-// The site will have a template system loaded and ready to use.
-// Note: This is mainly used in single site tests.
-// TODO(bep) test refactor -- remove
-func NewEnglishSite(withTemplate ...func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error) (*Site, error) {
-	l := configLoader{cfg: config.New()}
-	if err := l.applyConfigDefaults(); err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	return newSiteForLang(langs.NewLanguage("en", l.cfg), withTemplate...)
-}
-
-// newSiteForLang creates a new site in the given language.
-func newSiteForLang(lang *langs.Language, withTemplate ...func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error) (*Site, error) {
-	withTemplates := func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error {
-		for _, wt := range withTemplate {
-			if err := wt(templ); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-		}
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	cfg := deps.DepsCfg{WithTemplate: withTemplates, Cfg: lang}
-
-	return NewSiteForCfg(cfg)
-}
-
-// NewSiteForCfg creates a new site for the given configuration.
-// The site will have a template system loaded and ready to use.
-// Note: This is mainly used in single site tests.
-func NewSiteForCfg(cfg deps.DepsCfg) (*Site, error) {
-	h, err := NewHugoSites(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	return h.Sites[0], nil
-}
-
-type SiteInfo struct {
-	Authors page.AuthorList
-	Social  SiteSocial
-
-	hugoInfo     hugo.Info
-	title        string
-	RSSLink      string
-	Author       map[string]any
-	LanguageCode string
-	Copyright    string
-
-	permalinks map[string]string
-
-	LanguagePrefix string
-	Languages      langs.Languages
-
-	BuildDrafts bool
-
-	canonifyURLs bool
-	relativeURLs bool
-	uglyURLs     func(p page.Page) bool
-
-	owner                          *HugoSites
-	s                              *Site
-	language                       *langs.Language
-	defaultContentLanguageInSubdir bool
-	sectionPagesMenu               string
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Pages() page.Pages {
-	return s.s.Pages()
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) RegularPages() page.Pages {
-	return s.s.RegularPages()
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) AllPages() page.Pages {
-	return s.s.AllPages()
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) AllRegularPages() page.Pages {
-	return s.s.AllRegularPages()
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) LastChange() time.Time {
-	return s.s.lastmod
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Title() string {
-	return s.title
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Site() page.Site {
-	return s
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Menus() navigation.Menus {
-	return s.s.Menus()
-}
-
-// TODO(bep) type
-func (s *SiteInfo) Taxonomies() page.TaxonomyList {
-	return s.s.Taxonomies()
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Params() maps.Params {
-	return s.s.Language().Params()
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Data() map[string]any {
-	return s.s.h.Data()
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Language() *langs.Language {
-	return s.language
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Config() SiteConfig {
-	return s.s.siteConfigConfig
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) Hugo() hugo.Info {
-	return s.hugoInfo
-}
-
-// Sites is a convenience method to get all the Hugo sites/languages configured.
-func (s *SiteInfo) Sites() page.Sites {
-	return s.s.h.siteInfos()
-}
-
-// Current returns the currently rendered Site.
-// If that isn't set yet, which is the situation before we start rendering,
-// if will return the Site itself.
-func (s *SiteInfo) Current() page.Site {
-	if s.s.h.currentSite == nil {
-		return s
-	}
-	return s.s.h.currentSite.Info
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) String() string {
-	return fmt.Sprintf("Site(%q)", s.title)
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) BaseURL() template.URL {
-	return template.URL(s.s.PathSpec.BaseURL.String())
-}
-
-// ServerPort returns the port part of the BaseURL, 0 if none found.
-func (s *SiteInfo) ServerPort() int {
-	ps := s.s.PathSpec.BaseURL.URL().Port()
-	if ps == "" {
-		return 0
-	}
-	p, err := strconv.Atoi(ps)
-	if err != nil {
-		return 0
-	}
-	return p
-}
-
-// GoogleAnalytics is kept here for historic reasons.
-func (s *SiteInfo) GoogleAnalytics() string {
-	return s.Config().Services.GoogleAnalytics.ID
-}
-
-// DisqusShortname is kept here for historic reasons.
-func (s *SiteInfo) DisqusShortname() string {
-	return s.Config().Services.Disqus.Shortname
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) GetIdentity() identity.Identity {
-	return identity.KeyValueIdentity{Key: "site", Value: s.language.Lang}
-}
-
-// SiteSocial is a place to put social details on a site level. These are the
-// standard keys that themes will expect to have available, but can be
-// expanded to any others on a per site basis
-// github
-// facebook
-// facebook_admin
-// twitter
-// twitter_domain
-// pinterest
-// instagram
-// youtube
-// linkedin
-type SiteSocial map[string]string
-
-// Param is a convenience method to do lookups in SiteInfo's Params map.
-//
-// This method is also implemented on Page.
-func (s *SiteInfo) Param(key any) (any, error) {
-	return resource.Param(s, nil, key)
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) IsMultiLingual() bool {
-	return len(s.Languages) > 1
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) IsServer() bool {
-	return s.owner.running
+	return s.conf.IsKindEnabled(kind)
 }
 
 type siteRefLinker struct {
@@ -820,11 +287,11 @@ type siteRefLinker struct {
 	notFoundURL string
 }
 
-func newSiteRefLinker(cfg config.Provider, s *Site) (siteRefLinker, error) {
+func newSiteRefLinker(s *Site) (siteRefLinker, error) {
 	logger := s.Log.Error()
 
-	notFoundURL := cfg.GetString("refLinksNotFoundURL")
-	errLevel := cfg.GetString("refLinksErrorLevel")
+	notFoundURL := s.conf.RefLinksNotFoundURL
+	errLevel := s.conf.RefLinksErrorLevel
 	if strings.EqualFold(errLevel, "warning") {
 		logger = s.Log.Warn()
 	}
@@ -921,11 +388,7 @@ func (s *siteRefLinker) refLink(ref string, source any, relative bool, outputFor
 }
 
 func (s *Site) running() bool {
-	return s.h != nil && s.h.running
-}
-
-func (s *Site) multilingual() *Multilingual {
-	return s.h.multilingual
+	return s.h != nil && s.h.Configs.Base.Internal.Running
 }
 
 type whatChanged struct {
@@ -936,9 +399,9 @@ type whatChanged struct {
 // RegisterMediaTypes will register the Site's media types in the mime
 // package, so it will behave correctly with Hugo's built-in server.
 func (s *Site) RegisterMediaTypes() {
-	for _, mt := range s.mediaTypesConfig {
+	for _, mt := range s.conf.MediaTypes.Config {
 		for _, suffix := range mt.Suffixes() {
-			_ = mime.AddExtensionType(mt.Delimiter+suffix, mt.Type()+"; charset=utf-8")
+			_ = mime.AddExtensionType(mt.Delimiter+suffix, mt.Type+"; charset=utf-8")
 		}
 	}
 }
@@ -1131,31 +594,15 @@ func (s *Site) processPartial(config *BuildCfg, init func(config *BuildCfg) erro
 	}
 
 	if tmplChanged || i18nChanged {
-		sites := s.h.Sites
-		first := sites[0]
-
 		s.h.init.Reset()
-
-		// TOD(bep) globals clean
-		if err := first.Deps.LoadResources(); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-
-		for i := 1; i < len(sites); i++ {
-			site := sites[i]
-			var err error
-			depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{
-				Language:      site.language,
-				MediaTypes:    site.mediaTypesConfig,
-				OutputFormats: site.outputFormatsConfig,
-			}
-			site.Deps, err = first.Deps.ForLanguage(depsCfg, func(d *deps.Deps) error {
-				d.Site = site.Info
-				return nil
-			})
-			if err != nil {
+		var prototype *deps.Deps
+		for i, s := range s.h.Sites {
+			if err := s.Deps.Compile(prototype); err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
+			if i == 0 {
+				prototype = s.Deps
+			}
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -1215,10 +662,6 @@ func (s *Site) processPartial(config *BuildCfg, init func(config *BuildCfg) erro
 }
 
 func (s *Site) process(config BuildCfg) (err error) {
-	if err = s.initialize(); err != nil {
-		err = fmt.Errorf("initialize: %w", err)
-		return
-	}
 	if err = s.readAndProcessContent(config); err != nil {
 		err = fmt.Errorf("readAndProcessContent: %w", err)
 		return
@@ -1235,7 +678,7 @@ func (s *Site) render(ctx *siteRenderContext) (err error) {
 		// Note that even if disableAliases is set, the aliases themselves are
 		// preserved on page. The motivation with this is to be able to generate
 		// 301 redirects in a .htacess file and similar using a custom output format.
-		if !s.Cfg.GetBool("disableAliases") {
+		if !s.conf.DisableAliases {
 			// Aliases must be rendered before pages.
 			// Some sites, Hugo docs included, have faulty alias definitions that point
 			// to itself or another real page. These will be overwritten in the next
@@ -1277,134 +720,25 @@ func (s *Site) render(ctx *siteRenderContext) (err error) {
 	return
 }
 
-func (s *Site) Initialise() (err error) {
-	return s.initialize()
-}
-
-func (s *Site) initialize() (err error) {
-	return s.initializeSiteInfo()
-}
-
 // HomeAbsURL is a convenience method giving the absolute URL to the home page.
-func (s *SiteInfo) HomeAbsURL() string {
+func (s *Site) HomeAbsURL() string {
 	base := ""
-	if s.IsMultiLingual() {
+	if len(s.conf.Languages) > 1 {
 		base = s.Language().Lang
 	}
-	return s.owner.AbsURL(base, false)
+	return s.AbsURL(base, false)
 }
 
 // SitemapAbsURL is a convenience method giving the absolute URL to the sitemap.
-func (s *SiteInfo) SitemapAbsURL() string {
+func (s *Site) SitemapAbsURL() string {
 	p := s.HomeAbsURL()
 	if !strings.HasSuffix(p, "/") {
 		p += "/"
 	}
-	p += s.s.siteCfg.sitemap.Filename
+	p += s.conf.Sitemap.Filename
 	return p
 }
 
-func (s *Site) initializeSiteInfo() error {
-	var (
-		lang      = s.language
-		languages langs.Languages
-	)
-
-	if s.h != nil && s.h.multilingual != nil {
-		languages = s.h.multilingual.Languages
-	}
-
-	permalinks := s.Cfg.GetStringMapString("permalinks")
-
-	defaultContentInSubDir := s.Cfg.GetBool("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir")
-	defaultContentLanguage := s.Cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage")
-
-	languagePrefix := ""
-	if s.multilingualEnabled() && (defaultContentInSubDir || lang.Lang != defaultContentLanguage) {
-		languagePrefix = "/" + lang.Lang
-	}
-
-	uglyURLs := func(p page.Page) bool {
-		return false
-	}
-
-	v := s.Cfg.Get("uglyURLs")
-	if v != nil {
-		switch vv := v.(type) {
-		case bool:
-			uglyURLs = func(p page.Page) bool {
-				return vv
-			}
-		case string:
-			// Is what be get from CLI (--uglyURLs)
-			vvv := cast.ToBool(vv)
-			uglyURLs = func(p page.Page) bool {
-				return vvv
-			}
-		default:
-			m := maps.ToStringMapBool(v)
-			uglyURLs = func(p page.Page) bool {
-				return m[p.Section()]
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	// Assemble dependencies to be used in hugo.Deps.
-	// TODO(bep) another reminder: We need to clean up this Site vs HugoSites construct.
-	var deps []*hugo.Dependency
-	var depFromMod func(m modules.Module) *hugo.Dependency
-	depFromMod = func(m modules.Module) *hugo.Dependency {
-		dep := &hugo.Dependency{
-			Path:    m.Path(),
-			Version: m.Version(),
-			Time:    m.Time(),
-			Vendor:  m.Vendor(),
-		}
-
-		// These are pointers, but this all came from JSON so there's no recursive navigation,
-		// so just create new values.
-		if m.Replace() != nil {
-			dep.Replace = depFromMod(m.Replace())
-		}
-		if m.Owner() != nil {
-			dep.Owner = depFromMod(m.Owner())
-		}
-		return dep
-	}
-	for _, m := range s.Paths.AllModules {
-		deps = append(deps, depFromMod(m))
-	}
-
-	s.Info = &SiteInfo{
-		title:                          lang.GetString("title"),
-		Author:                         lang.GetStringMap("author"),
-		Social:                         lang.GetStringMapString("social"),
-		LanguageCode:                   lang.GetString("languageCode"),
-		Copyright:                      lang.GetString("copyright"),
-		language:                       lang,
-		LanguagePrefix:                 languagePrefix,
-		Languages:                      languages,
-		defaultContentLanguageInSubdir: defaultContentInSubDir,
-		sectionPagesMenu:               lang.GetString("sectionPagesMenu"),
-		BuildDrafts:                    s.Cfg.GetBool("buildDrafts"),
-		canonifyURLs:                   s.Cfg.GetBool("canonifyURLs"),
-		relativeURLs:                   s.Cfg.GetBool("relativeURLs"),
-		uglyURLs:                       uglyURLs,
-		permalinks:                     permalinks,
-		owner:                          s.h,
-		s:                              s,
-		hugoInfo:                       hugo.NewInfo(s.Cfg.GetString("environment"), deps),
-	}
-
-	rssOutputFormat, found := s.outputFormats[page.KindHome].GetByName(output.RSSFormat.Name)
-
-	if found {
-		s.Info.RSSLink = s.permalink(rssOutputFormat.BaseFilename())
-	}
-
-	return nil
-}
-
 func (s *Site) eventToIdentity(e fsnotify.Event) (identity.PathIdentity, bool) {
 	for _, fs := range s.BaseFs.SourceFilesystems.FileSystems() {
 		if p := fs.Path(e.Name); p != "" {
@@ -1415,6 +749,10 @@ func (s *Site) eventToIdentity(e fsnotify.Event) (identity.PathIdentity, bool) {
 }
 
 func (s *Site) readAndProcessContent(buildConfig BuildCfg, filenames ...string) error {
+	if s.Deps == nil {
+		panic("nil deps on site")
+	}
+
 	sourceSpec := source.NewSourceSpec(s.PathSpec, buildConfig.ContentInclusionFilter, s.BaseFs.Content.Fs)
 
 	proc := newPagesProcessor(s.h, sourceSpec)
@@ -1428,58 +766,15 @@ func (s *Site) readAndProcessContent(buildConfig BuildCfg, filenames ...string)
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (s *Site) getMenusFromConfig() navigation.Menus {
-	ret := navigation.Menus{}
-
-	if menus := s.language.GetStringMap("menus"); menus != nil {
-		for name, menu := range menus {
-			m, err := cast.ToSliceE(menu)
-			if err != nil {
-				s.Log.Errorf("menus in site config contain errors\n")
-				s.Log.Errorln(err)
-			} else {
-				handleErr := func(err error) {
-					if err == nil {
-						return
-					}
-					s.Log.Errorf("menus in site config contain errors\n")
-					s.Log.Errorln(err)
-				}
-
-				for _, entry := range m {
-					s.Log.Debugf("found menu: %q, in site config\n", name)
-
-					menuEntry := navigation.MenuEntry{Menu: name}
-					ime, err := maps.ToStringMapE(entry)
-					handleErr(err)
-
-					err = menuEntry.MarshallMap(ime)
-					handleErr(err)
-
-					// TODO(bep) clean up all of this
-					menuEntry.ConfiguredURL = s.Info.createNodeMenuEntryURL(menuEntry.ConfiguredURL)
-
-					if ret[name] == nil {
-						ret[name] = navigation.Menu{}
-					}
-					ret[name] = ret[name].Add(&menuEntry)
-				}
-			}
-		}
-		return ret
-	}
-	return ret
-}
-
-func (s *SiteInfo) createNodeMenuEntryURL(in string) string {
+func (s *Site) createNodeMenuEntryURL(in string) string {
 	if !strings.HasPrefix(in, "/") {
 		return in
 	}
 	// make it match the nodes
 	menuEntryURL := in
 	menuEntryURL = helpers.SanitizeURLKeepTrailingSlash(s.s.PathSpec.URLize(menuEntryURL))
-	if !s.canonifyURLs {
-		menuEntryURL = paths.AddContextRoot(s.s.PathSpec.BaseURL.String(), menuEntryURL)
+	if !s.conf.CanonifyURLs {
+		menuEntryURL = paths.AddContextRoot(s.s.PathSpec.Cfg.BaseURL().String(), menuEntryURL)
 	}
 	return menuEntryURL
 }
@@ -1494,18 +789,26 @@ func (s *Site) assembleMenus() {
 	children := map[twoD]navigation.Menu{}
 
 	// add menu entries from config to flat hash
-	menuConfig := s.getMenusFromConfig()
-	for name, menu := range menuConfig {
+	for name, menu := range s.conf.Menus.Config {
 		for _, me := range menu {
-			if types.IsNil(me.Page) && me.PageRef != "" {
-				// Try to resolve the page.
-				me.Page, _ = s.getPageNew(nil, me.PageRef)
+			if types.IsNil(me.Page) {
+				if me.PageRef != "" {
+					// Try to resolve the page.
+					p, _ := s.getPageNew(nil, me.PageRef)
+					if !types.IsNil(p) {
+						navigation.SetPageValues(me, p)
+					}
+				}
+
+			} else {
+				me.ConfiguredURL = s.createNodeMenuEntryURL(me.MenuConfig.URL)
 			}
+
 			flat[twoD{name, me.KeyName()}] = me
 		}
 	}
 
-	sectionPagesMenu := s.Info.sectionPagesMenu
+	sectionPagesMenu := s.conf.SectionPagesMenu
 
 	if sectionPagesMenu != "" {
 		s.pageMap.sections.Walk(func(s string, v any) bool {
@@ -1522,11 +825,13 @@ func (s *Site) assembleMenus() {
 			}
 
 			me := navigation.MenuEntry{
-				Identifier: id,
-				Name:       p.LinkTitle(),
-				Weight:     p.Weight(),
-				Page:       p,
+				MenuConfig: navigation.MenuConfig{
+					Identifier: id,
+					Name:       p.LinkTitle(),
+					Weight:     p.Weight(),
+				},
 			}
+			navigation.SetPageValues(&me, p)
 			flat[twoD{sectionPagesMenu, me.KeyName()}] = &me
 
 			return false
@@ -1561,7 +866,11 @@ func (s *Site) assembleMenus() {
 		_, ok := flat[twoD{p.MenuName, p.EntryName}]
 		if !ok {
 			// if parent does not exist, create one without a URL
-			flat[twoD{p.MenuName, p.EntryName}] = &navigation.MenuEntry{Name: p.EntryName}
+			flat[twoD{p.MenuName, p.EntryName}] = &navigation.MenuEntry{
+				MenuConfig: navigation.MenuConfig{
+					Name: p.EntryName,
+				},
+			}
 		}
 		flat[twoD{p.MenuName, p.EntryName}].Children = childmenu
 	}
@@ -1580,7 +889,7 @@ func (s *Site) assembleMenus() {
 
 // get any language code to prefix the target file path with.
 func (s *Site) getLanguageTargetPathLang(alwaysInSubDir bool) string {
-	if s.h.IsMultihost() {
+	if s.h.Conf.IsMultihost() {
 		return s.Language().Lang
 	}
 
@@ -1589,7 +898,7 @@ func (s *Site) getLanguageTargetPathLang(alwaysInSubDir bool) string {
 
 // get any lanaguagecode to prefix the relative permalink with.
 func (s *Site) getLanguagePermalinkLang(alwaysInSubDir bool) string {
-	if !s.Info.IsMultiLingual() || s.h.IsMultihost() {
+	if !s.h.isMultiLingual() || s.h.Conf.IsMultihost() {
 		return ""
 	}
 
@@ -1597,9 +906,9 @@ func (s *Site) getLanguagePermalinkLang(alwaysInSubDir bool) string {
 		return s.Language().Lang
 	}
 
-	isDefault := s.Language().Lang == s.multilingual().DefaultLang.Lang
+	isDefault := s.Language().Lang == s.conf.DefaultContentLanguage
 
-	if !isDefault || s.Info.defaultContentLanguageInSubdir {
+	if !isDefault || s.conf.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir {
 		return s.Language().Lang
 	}
 
@@ -1607,7 +916,7 @@ func (s *Site) getLanguagePermalinkLang(alwaysInSubDir bool) string {
 }
 
 func (s *Site) getTaxonomyKey(key string) string {
-	if s.PathSpec.DisablePathToLower {
+	if s.conf.DisablePathToLower {
 		return s.PathSpec.MakePath(key)
 	}
 	return strings.ToLower(s.PathSpec.MakePath(key))
@@ -1656,7 +965,7 @@ func (s *Site) errorCollator(results <-chan error, errs chan<- error) {
 // When we now remove the Kind from this API, we need to make the transition as painless
 // as possible for existing sites. Most sites will use {{ .Site.GetPage "section" "my/section" }},
 // i.e. 2 arguments, so we test for that.
-func (s *SiteInfo) GetPage(ref ...string) (page.Page, error) {
+func (s *Site) GetPage(ref ...string) (page.Page, error) {
 	p, err := s.s.getPageOldVersion(ref...)
 
 	if p == nil {
@@ -1669,7 +978,7 @@ func (s *SiteInfo) GetPage(ref ...string) (page.Page, error) {
 	return p, err
 }
 
-func (s *SiteInfo) GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info tpl.Info, ref ...string) (page.Page, error) {
+func (s *Site) GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info tpl.Info, ref ...string) (page.Page, error) {
 	p, err := s.GetPage(ref...)
 	if p != nil {
 		// Track pages referenced by templates/shortcodes
@@ -1682,15 +991,15 @@ func (s *SiteInfo) GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info tpl.Info, ref ...string) (page.P
 }
 
 func (s *Site) permalink(link string) string {
-	return s.PathSpec.PermalinkForBaseURL(link, s.PathSpec.BaseURL.String())
+	return s.PathSpec.PermalinkForBaseURL(link, s.PathSpec.Cfg.BaseURL().String())
 }
 
 func (s *Site) absURLPath(targetPath string) string {
 	var path string
-	if s.Info.relativeURLs {
+	if s.conf.RelativeURLs {
 		path = helpers.GetDottedRelativePath(targetPath)
 	} else {
-		url := s.PathSpec.BaseURL.String()
+		url := s.PathSpec.Cfg.BaseURL().String()
 		if !strings.HasSuffix(url, "/") {
 			url += "/"
 		}
@@ -1750,7 +1059,7 @@ func (s *Site) renderAndWritePage(statCounter *uint64, name string, targetPath s
 	}
 
 	isHTML := of.IsHTML
-	isRSS := of.Name == "RSS"
+	isRSS := of.Name == "rss"
 
 	pd := publisher.Descriptor{
 		Src:          renderBuffer,
@@ -1763,20 +1072,17 @@ func (s *Site) renderAndWritePage(statCounter *uint64, name string, targetPath s
 		// Always canonify URLs in RSS
 		pd.AbsURLPath = s.absURLPath(targetPath)
 	} else if isHTML {
-		if s.Info.relativeURLs || s.Info.canonifyURLs {
+		if s.conf.RelativeURLs || s.conf.CanonifyURLs {
 			pd.AbsURLPath = s.absURLPath(targetPath)
 		}
 
-		if s.running() && s.Cfg.GetBool("watch") && !s.Cfg.GetBool("disableLiveReload") {
-			pd.LiveReloadBaseURL = s.PathSpec.BaseURL.URL()
-			if s.Cfg.GetInt("liveReloadPort") != -1 {
-				pd.LiveReloadBaseURL.Host = fmt.Sprintf("%s:%d", pd.LiveReloadBaseURL.Hostname(), s.Cfg.GetInt("liveReloadPort"))
-			}
+		if s.running() && s.conf.Internal.Watch && !s.conf.Internal.DisableLiveReload {
+			pd.LiveReloadBaseURL = s.Conf.BaseURLLiveReload().URL()
 		}
 
 		// For performance reasons we only inject the Hugo generator tag on the home page.
 		if p.IsHome() {
-			pd.AddHugoGeneratorTag = !s.Cfg.GetBool("disableHugoGeneratorInject")
+			pd.AddHugoGeneratorTag = !s.conf.DisableHugoGeneratorInject
 		}
 
 	}
@@ -1872,7 +1178,8 @@ func (s *Site) kindFromSections(sections []string) string {
 }
 
 func (s *Site) kindFromSectionPath(sectionPath string) string {
-	for _, plural := range s.siteCfg.taxonomiesConfig {
+	var taxonomiesConfig taxonomiesConfig = s.conf.Taxonomies
+	for _, plural := range taxonomiesConfig {
 		if plural == sectionPath {
 			return page.KindTaxonomy
 		}
@@ -1913,8 +1220,8 @@ func (s *Site) newPage(
 }
 
 func (s *Site) shouldBuild(p page.Page) bool {
-	return shouldBuild(s.BuildFuture, s.BuildExpired,
-		s.BuildDrafts, p.Draft(), p.PublishDate(), p.ExpiryDate())
+	return shouldBuild(s.Conf.BuildFuture(), s.Conf.BuildExpired(),
+		s.Conf.BuildDrafts(), p.Draft(), p.PublishDate(), p.ExpiryDate())
 }
 
 func shouldBuild(buildFuture bool, buildExpired bool, buildDrafts bool, Draft bool,
diff --git a/hugolib/site_benchmark_new_test.go b/hugolib/site_benchmark_new_test.go
index ea3f223dc..020f8409b 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_benchmark_new_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_benchmark_new_test.go
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ This is [Relative](/all-is-relative).
 See my [About](/about/) page for details. 
 `
 
-func getBenchmarkSiteNewTestCases() []siteBenchmarkTestcase {
+func getBenchmarkSiteTestCases() []siteBenchmarkTestcase {
 	pageContentWithCategory := func(size int, category string) string {
 		return getBenchmarkTestDataPageContentForMarkdown(size, false, category, benchmarkMarkdownSnippets)
 	}
@@ -452,8 +452,8 @@ baseURL = "https://example.com"
 
 // Run the benchmarks below as tests. Mostly useful when adding new benchmark
 // variants.
-func TestBenchmarkSiteNew(b *testing.T) {
-	benchmarks := getBenchmarkSiteNewTestCases()
+func TestBenchmarkSite(b *testing.T) {
+	benchmarks := getBenchmarkSiteTestCases()
 	for _, bm := range benchmarks {
 		b.Run(bm.name, func(b *testing.T) {
 			s := bm.create(b)
@@ -491,7 +491,7 @@ Edited!!`, p.Title()))
 
 func BenchmarkSiteNew(b *testing.B) {
 	rnd := rand.New(rand.NewSource(32))
-	benchmarks := getBenchmarkSiteNewTestCases()
+	benchmarks := getBenchmarkSiteTestCases()
 	for _, edit := range []bool{true, false} {
 		for _, bm := range benchmarks {
 			name := bm.name
diff --git a/hugolib/site_new.go b/hugolib/site_new.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..f449b857a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/hugolib/site_new.go
@@ -0,0 +1,458 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package hugolib
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"html/template"
+	"sort"
+	"time"
+
+	radix "github.com/armon/go-radix"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/para"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs/i18n"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/lazy"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/navigation"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/publisher"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page/pagemeta"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl/tplimpl"
+)
+
+var (
+	_ page.Site = (*Site)(nil)
+)
+
+type Site struct {
+	conf     *allconfig.Config
+	language *langs.Language
+
+	// The owning container.
+	h *HugoSites
+
+	*deps.Deps
+
+	// Page navigation.
+	*PageCollections
+	taxonomies page.TaxonomyList
+	menus      navigation.Menus
+
+	siteBucket *pagesMapBucket
+
+	// Shortcut to the home page. Note that this may be nil if
+	// home page, for some odd reason, is disabled.
+	home *pageState
+
+	// The last modification date of this site.
+	lastmod time.Time
+
+	relatedDocsHandler *page.RelatedDocsHandler
+	siteRefLinker
+	publisher          publisher.Publisher
+	frontmatterHandler pagemeta.FrontMatterHandler
+
+	// We render each site for all the relevant output formats in serial with
+	// this rendering context pointing to the current one.
+	rc *siteRenderingContext
+
+	// The output formats that we need to render this site in. This slice
+	// will be fixed once set.
+	// This will be the union of Site.Pages' outputFormats.
+	// This slice will be sorted.
+	renderFormats output.Formats
+
+	// Lazily loaded site dependencies
+	init *siteInit
+}
+
+func (s *Site) Debug() {
+	fmt.Println("Debugging site", s.Lang(), "=>")
+	fmt.Println(s.pageMap.testDump())
+}
+
+// NewHugoSites creates HugoSites from the given config.
+func NewHugoSites(cfg deps.DepsCfg) (*HugoSites, error) {
+	conf := cfg.Configs.GetFirstLanguageConfig()
+
+	logger := cfg.Logger
+	if logger == nil {
+		logger = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
+	}
+	ignorableLogger := loggers.NewIgnorableLogger(logger, conf.IgnoredErrors())
+
+	firstSiteDeps := &deps.Deps{
+		Fs:                  cfg.Fs,
+		Log:                 ignorableLogger,
+		Conf:                conf,
+		TemplateProvider:    tplimpl.DefaultTemplateProvider,
+		TranslationProvider: i18n.NewTranslationProvider(),
+	}
+	if err := firstSiteDeps.Init(); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	confm := cfg.Configs
+	var sites []*Site
+
+	for i, confp := range confm.ConfigLangs() {
+		language := confp.Language()
+		if confp.IsLangDisabled(language.Lang) {
+			continue
+		}
+		k := language.Lang
+		conf := confm.LanguageConfigMap[k]
+
+		frontmatterHandler, err := pagemeta.NewFrontmatterHandler(cfg.Logger, conf.Frontmatter)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+
+		s := &Site{
+			conf:     conf,
+			language: language,
+			siteBucket: &pagesMapBucket{
+				cascade: conf.Cascade.Config,
+			},
+			frontmatterHandler: frontmatterHandler,
+		}
+
+		if i == 0 {
+			firstSiteDeps.Site = s
+			s.Deps = firstSiteDeps
+		} else {
+			d, err := firstSiteDeps.Clone(s, confp)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, err
+			}
+			s.Deps = d
+		}
+
+		// Site deps start.
+		var taxonomiesConfig taxonomiesConfig = conf.Taxonomies
+		pm := &pageMap{
+			contentMap: newContentMap(contentMapConfig{
+				lang:                 k,
+				taxonomyConfig:       taxonomiesConfig.Values(),
+				taxonomyDisabled:     !conf.IsKindEnabled(page.KindTerm),
+				taxonomyTermDisabled: !conf.IsKindEnabled(page.KindTaxonomy),
+				pageDisabled:         !conf.IsKindEnabled(page.KindPage),
+			}),
+			s: s,
+		}
+
+		s.PageCollections = newPageCollections(pm)
+		s.siteRefLinker, err = newSiteRefLinker(s)
+
+		// Set up the main publishing chain.
+		pub, err := publisher.NewDestinationPublisher(
+			firstSiteDeps.ResourceSpec,
+			s.conf.OutputFormats.Config,
+			s.conf.MediaTypes.Config,
+		)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+
+		s.publisher = pub
+		s.relatedDocsHandler = page.NewRelatedDocsHandler(s.conf.Related)
+		// Site deps end.
+
+		s.prepareInits()
+		sites = append(sites, s)
+	}
+
+	if len(sites) == 0 {
+		return nil, errors.New("no sites to build")
+	}
+
+	// Sort the sites by language weight (if set) or lang.
+	sort.Slice(sites, func(i, j int) bool {
+		li := sites[i].language
+		lj := sites[j].language
+		if li.Weight != lj.Weight {
+			return li.Weight < lj.Weight
+		}
+		return li.Lang < lj.Lang
+	})
+
+	h, err := newHugoSitesNew(cfg, firstSiteDeps, sites)
+	if err == nil && h == nil {
+		panic("hugo: newHugoSitesNew returned nil error and nil HugoSites")
+	}
+
+	return h, err
+}
+
+func newHugoSitesNew(cfg deps.DepsCfg, d *deps.Deps, sites []*Site) (*HugoSites, error) {
+	numWorkers := config.GetNumWorkerMultiplier()
+	if numWorkers > len(sites) {
+		numWorkers = len(sites)
+	}
+	var workers *para.Workers
+	if numWorkers > 1 {
+		workers = para.New(numWorkers)
+	}
+
+	h := &HugoSites{
+		Sites:                   sites,
+		Deps:                    sites[0].Deps,
+		Configs:                 cfg.Configs,
+		workers:                 workers,
+		numWorkers:              numWorkers,
+		currentSite:             sites[0],
+		skipRebuildForFilenames: make(map[string]bool),
+		init: &hugoSitesInit{
+			data:         lazy.New(),
+			layouts:      lazy.New(),
+			gitInfo:      lazy.New(),
+			translations: lazy.New(),
+		},
+	}
+
+	// Assemble dependencies to be used in hugo.Deps.
+	var dependencies []*hugo.Dependency
+	var depFromMod func(m modules.Module) *hugo.Dependency
+	depFromMod = func(m modules.Module) *hugo.Dependency {
+		dep := &hugo.Dependency{
+			Path:    m.Path(),
+			Version: m.Version(),
+			Time:    m.Time(),
+			Vendor:  m.Vendor(),
+		}
+
+		// These are pointers, but this all came from JSON so there's no recursive navigation,
+		// so just create new values.
+		if m.Replace() != nil {
+			dep.Replace = depFromMod(m.Replace())
+		}
+		if m.Owner() != nil {
+			dep.Owner = depFromMod(m.Owner())
+		}
+		return dep
+	}
+	for _, m := range d.Paths.AllModules() {
+		dependencies = append(dependencies, depFromMod(m))
+	}
+
+	h.hugoInfo = hugo.NewInfo(h.Configs.Base.Environment, dependencies)
+
+	var prototype *deps.Deps
+	for i, s := range sites {
+		s.h = h
+		if err := s.Deps.Compile(prototype); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		if i == 0 {
+			prototype = s.Deps
+		}
+	}
+
+	h.fatalErrorHandler = &fatalErrorHandler{
+		h:     h,
+		donec: make(chan bool),
+	}
+
+	// Only needed in server mode.
+	if cfg.Configs.Base.Internal.Running {
+		h.ContentChanges = &contentChangeMap{
+			pathSpec:      h.PathSpec,
+			symContent:    make(map[string]map[string]bool),
+			leafBundles:   radix.New(),
+			branchBundles: make(map[string]bool),
+		}
+	}
+
+	h.init.data.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
+		err := h.loadData(h.PathSpec.BaseFs.Data.Dirs)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load data: %w", err)
+		}
+		return nil, nil
+	})
+
+	h.init.layouts.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
+		for _, s := range h.Sites {
+			if err := s.Tmpl().(tpl.TemplateManager).MarkReady(); err != nil {
+				return nil, err
+			}
+		}
+		return nil, nil
+	})
+
+	h.init.translations.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
+		if len(h.Sites) > 1 {
+			allTranslations := pagesToTranslationsMap(h.Sites)
+			assignTranslationsToPages(allTranslations, h.Sites)
+		}
+
+		return nil, nil
+	})
+
+	h.init.gitInfo.Add(func(context.Context) (any, error) {
+		err := h.loadGitInfo()
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to load Git info: %w", err)
+		}
+		return nil, nil
+	})
+
+	return h, nil
+}
+
+// Returns true if we're running in a server.
+func (s *Site) IsServer() bool {
+	return s.conf.Internal.Running
+}
+
+// Returns the server port.
+func (s *Site) ServerPort() int {
+	return s.conf.C.BaseURL.Port()
+}
+
+// Returns the configured title for this Site.
+func (s *Site) Title() string {
+	return s.conf.Title
+}
+
+func (s *Site) Copyright() string {
+	return s.conf.Copyright
+}
+
+func (s *Site) RSSLink() string {
+	rssOutputFormat, found := s.conf.C.KindOutputFormats[page.KindHome].GetByName("rss")
+	if !found {
+		return ""
+	}
+	return s.permalink(rssOutputFormat.BaseFilename())
+}
+
+func (s *Site) Config() page.SiteConfig {
+	return page.SiteConfig{
+		Privacy:  s.conf.Privacy,
+		Services: s.conf.Services,
+	}
+}
+
+func (s *Site) LanguageCode() string {
+	if s.conf.LanguageCode != "" {
+		return s.conf.LanguageCode
+	}
+	return s.language.Lang
+}
+
+// Returns all Sites for all languages.
+func (s *Site) Sites() page.Sites {
+	sites := make(page.Sites, len(s.h.Sites))
+	for i, s := range s.h.Sites {
+		sites[i] = s.Site()
+	}
+	return sites
+}
+
+// Returns Site currently rendering.
+func (s *Site) Current() page.Site {
+	return s.h.currentSite
+}
+
+// MainSections returns the list of main sections.
+func (s *Site) MainSections() []string {
+	return s.conf.C.MainSections
+}
+
+// Returns a struct with some information about the build.
+func (s *Site) Hugo() hugo.HugoInfo {
+	if s.h == nil || s.h.hugoInfo.Environment == "" {
+		panic("site: hugo: hugoInfo not initialized")
+	}
+	return s.h.hugoInfo
+}
+
+// Returns the BaseURL for this Site.
+func (s *Site) BaseURL() template.URL {
+	return template.URL(s.conf.C.BaseURL.WithPath)
+}
+
+// Returns the last modification date of the content.
+func (s *Site) LastChange() time.Time {
+	return s.lastmod
+}
+
+// Returns the Params configured for this site.
+func (s *Site) Params() maps.Params {
+	return s.conf.Params
+}
+
+func (s *Site) Author() map[string]any {
+	return s.conf.Author
+}
+
+func (s *Site) Social() map[string]string {
+	return s.conf.Social
+}
+
+// TODO(bep): deprecate.
+func (s *Site) DisqusShortname() string {
+	return s.Config().Services.Disqus.Shortname
+}
+
+// TODO(bep): deprecate.
+func (s *Site) GoogleAnalytics() string {
+	return s.Config().Services.GoogleAnalytics.ID
+}
+
+func (s *Site) Param(key string) (any, error) {
+	return resource.Param(s, nil, key)
+}
+
+// Returns a map of all the data inside /data.
+func (s *Site) Data() map[string]any {
+	return s.s.h.Data()
+}
+
+func (s *Site) LanguagePrefix() string {
+	conf := s.s.Conf
+	if !conf.IsMultiLingual() {
+		return ""
+	}
+
+	if !conf.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir() && s.language.Lang == conf.DefaultContentLanguage() {
+		return ""
+	}
+
+	return "/" + s.language.Lang
+}
+
+// Returns the identity of this site.
+// This is for internal use only.
+func (s *Site) GetIdentity() identity.Identity {
+	return identity.KeyValueIdentity{Key: "site", Value: s.Lang()}
+}
+
+func (s *Site) Site() page.Site {
+	return page.WrapSite(s)
+}
diff --git a/hugolib/site_output_test.go b/hugolib/site_output_test.go
index 1a8bbadec..c5cee7641 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_output_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_output_test.go
@@ -159,9 +159,9 @@ Len Pages: {{ .Kind }} {{ len .Site.RegularPages }} Page Number: {{ .Paginator.P
 
 	if hasHTML {
 		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.json",
-			"Alt Output: HTML",
-			"Output/Rel: JSON/alternate|",
-			"Output/Rel: HTML/canonical|",
+			"Alt Output: html",
+			"Output/Rel: json/alternate|",
+			"Output/Rel: html/canonical|",
 			"en: Elbow",
 			"ShortJSON",
 			"OtherShort: <h1>Hi!</h1>",
@@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ Len Pages: {{ .Kind }} {{ len .Site.RegularPages }} Page Number: {{ .Paginator.P
 			"nn: Olboge")
 	} else {
 		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.json",
-			"Output/Rel: JSON/canonical|",
+			"Output/Rel: json/canonical|",
 			// JSON is plain text, so no need to safeHTML this and that
 			`<atom:link href=http://example.com/blog/index.json rel="self" type="application/json" />`,
 			"ShortJSON",
@@ -248,7 +248,7 @@ baseName = "feed"
 	s := h.Sites[0]
 
 	// Issue #3450
-	c.Assert(s.Info.RSSLink, qt.Equals, "http://example.com/blog/feed.xml")
+	c.Assert(s.RSSLink(), qt.Equals, "http://example.com/blog/feed.xml")
 }
 
 // Issue #3614
@@ -363,7 +363,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormats(t *testing.T) {
 			page.KindSection: []string{"JSON"},
 		}
 
-		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		cfg := config.New()
 		cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 		outputs, err := createSiteOutputFormats(output.DefaultFormats, cfg.GetStringMap("outputs"), false)
@@ -388,7 +388,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormats(t *testing.T) {
 	// Issue #4528
 	t.Run("Mixed case", func(t *testing.T) {
 		c := qt.New(t)
-		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		cfg := config.New()
 
 		outputsConfig := map[string]any{
 			// Note that we in Hugo 0.53.0 renamed this Kind to "taxonomy",
@@ -410,7 +410,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormatsInvalidConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		page.KindHome: []string{"FOO", "JSON"},
 	}
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 	_, err := createSiteOutputFormats(output.DefaultFormats, cfg.GetStringMap("outputs"), false)
@@ -424,7 +424,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormatsEmptyConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		page.KindHome: []string{},
 	}
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 	outputs, err := createSiteOutputFormats(output.DefaultFormats, cfg.GetStringMap("outputs"), false)
@@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ func TestCreateSiteOutputFormatsCustomFormats(t *testing.T) {
 		page.KindHome: []string{},
 	}
 
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("outputs", outputsConfig)
 
 	var (
@@ -550,37 +550,37 @@ Output Formats: {{ len .OutputFormats }};{{ range .OutputFormats }}{{ .Name }};{
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html",
 		"This RelPermalink: /",
-		"Output Formats: 4;HTML;/|AMP;/amp/|damp;/damp/|base;/that.html|",
+		"Output Formats: 4;html;/|amp;/amp/|damp;/damp/|base;/that.html|",
 	)
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/amp/index.html",
 		"This RelPermalink: /amp/",
-		"Output Formats: 4;HTML;/|AMP;/amp/|damp;/damp/|base;/that.html|",
+		"Output Formats: 4;html;/|amp;/amp/|damp;/damp/|base;/that.html|",
 	)
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/blog/html-amp/index.html",
-		"Output Formats: 2;HTML;/blog/html-amp/|AMP;/amp/blog/html-amp/|",
+		"Output Formats: 2;html;/blog/html-amp/|amp;/amp/blog/html-amp/|",
 		"This RelPermalink: /blog/html-amp/")
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/amp/blog/html-amp/index.html",
-		"Output Formats: 2;HTML;/blog/html-amp/|AMP;/amp/blog/html-amp/|",
+		"Output Formats: 2;html;/blog/html-amp/|amp;/amp/blog/html-amp/|",
 		"This RelPermalink: /amp/blog/html-amp/")
 
 	// Damp is not permalinkable
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/damp/blog/html-damp/index.html",
 		"This RelPermalink: /blog/html-damp/",
-		"Output Formats: 2;HTML;/blog/html-damp/|damp;/damp/blog/html-damp/|")
+		"Output Formats: 2;html;/blog/html-damp/|damp;/damp/blog/html-damp/|")
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/blog/html-ramp/index.html",
 		"This RelPermalink: /blog/html-ramp/",
-		"Output Formats: 2;HTML;/blog/html-ramp/|ramp;/ramp/blog/html-ramp/|")
+		"Output Formats: 2;html;/blog/html-ramp/|ramp;/ramp/blog/html-ramp/|")
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/ramp/blog/html-ramp/index.html",
 		"This RelPermalink: /ramp/blog/html-ramp/",
-		"Output Formats: 2;HTML;/blog/html-ramp/|ramp;/ramp/blog/html-ramp/|")
+		"Output Formats: 2;html;/blog/html-ramp/|ramp;/ramp/blog/html-ramp/|")
 
 	// https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/5877
-	outputFormats := "Output Formats: 3;HTML;/blog/html-base-nobase/|base;/blog/html-base-nobase/that.html|nobase;/blog/html-base-nobase/index.json|"
+	outputFormats := "Output Formats: 3;html;/blog/html-base-nobase/|base;/blog/html-base-nobase/that.html|nobase;/blog/html-base-nobase/index.json|"
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/blog/html-base-nobase/index.json",
 		"This RelPermalink: /blog/html-base-nobase/index.json",
diff --git a/hugolib/site_render.go b/hugolib/site_render.go
index f105a1ae4..f076b98dd 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_render.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_render.go
@@ -20,6 +20,8 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output/layouts"
+
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
 
@@ -77,6 +79,7 @@ func (s *Site) renderPages(ctx *siteRenderContext) error {
 	cfg := ctx.cfg
 
 	s.pageMap.pageTrees.Walk(func(ss string, n *contentNode) bool {
+
 		if cfg.shouldRender(n.p) {
 			select {
 			case <-s.h.Done():
@@ -183,7 +186,7 @@ func (s *Site) logMissingLayout(name, layout, kind, outputFormat string) {
 
 // renderPaginator must be run after the owning Page has been rendered.
 func (s *Site) renderPaginator(p *pageState, templ tpl.Template) error {
-	paginatePath := s.Cfg.GetString("paginatePath")
+	paginatePath := s.conf.PaginatePath
 
 	d := p.targetPathDescriptor
 	f := p.s.rc.Format
@@ -240,7 +243,7 @@ func (s *Site) render404() error {
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	var d output.LayoutDescriptor
+	var d layouts.LayoutDescriptor
 	d.Kind = kind404
 
 	templ, found, err := s.Tmpl().LookupLayout(d, output.HTMLFormat)
@@ -265,7 +268,7 @@ func (s *Site) renderSitemap() error {
 		s:    s,
 		kind: kindSitemap,
 		urlPaths: pagemeta.URLPath{
-			URL: s.siteCfg.sitemap.Filename,
+			URL: s.conf.Sitemap.Filename,
 		},
 	},
 		output.HTMLFormat,
@@ -291,7 +294,7 @@ func (s *Site) renderSitemap() error {
 }
 
 func (s *Site) renderRobotsTXT() error {
-	if !s.Cfg.GetBool("enableRobotsTXT") {
+	if !s.conf.EnableRobotsTXT && s.isEnabled(kindRobotsTXT) {
 		return nil
 	}
 
@@ -355,13 +358,13 @@ func (s *Site) renderAliases() error {
 					a = path.Join(f.Path, a)
 				}
 
-				if s.UglyURLs && !strings.HasSuffix(a, ".html") {
+				if s.conf.C.IsUglyURLSection(p.Section()) && !strings.HasSuffix(a, ".html") {
 					a += ".html"
 				}
 
 				lang := p.Language().Lang
 
-				if s.h.multihost && !strings.HasPrefix(a, "/"+lang) {
+				if s.h.Configs.IsMultihost && !strings.HasPrefix(a, "/"+lang) {
 					// These need to be in its language root.
 					a = path.Join(lang, a)
 				}
@@ -381,16 +384,16 @@ func (s *Site) renderAliases() error {
 // renderMainLanguageRedirect creates a redirect to the main language home,
 // depending on if it lives in sub folder (e.g. /en) or not.
 func (s *Site) renderMainLanguageRedirect() error {
-	if !s.h.multilingual.enabled() || s.h.IsMultihost() {
+	if !s.h.isMultiLingual() || s.h.Conf.IsMultihost() {
 		// No need for a redirect
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	html, found := s.outputFormatsConfig.GetByName("HTML")
+	html, found := s.conf.OutputFormats.Config.GetByName("html")
 	if found {
-		mainLang := s.h.multilingual.DefaultLang
-		if s.Info.defaultContentLanguageInSubdir {
-			mainLangURL := s.PathSpec.AbsURL(mainLang.Lang+"/", false)
+		mainLang := s.conf.DefaultContentLanguage
+		if s.conf.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir {
+			mainLangURL := s.PathSpec.AbsURL(mainLang+"/", false)
 			s.Log.Debugf("Write redirect to main language %s: %s", mainLang, mainLangURL)
 			if err := s.publishDestAlias(true, "/", mainLangURL, html, nil); err != nil {
 				return err
@@ -398,7 +401,7 @@ func (s *Site) renderMainLanguageRedirect() error {
 		} else {
 			mainLangURL := s.PathSpec.AbsURL("", false)
 			s.Log.Debugf("Write redirect to main language %s: %s", mainLang, mainLangURL)
-			if err := s.publishDestAlias(true, mainLang.Lang, mainLangURL, html, nil); err != nil {
+			if err := s.publishDestAlias(true, mainLang, mainLangURL, html, nil); err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
 		}
diff --git a/hugolib/site_sections.go b/hugolib/site_sections.go
index 50dfe6ffa..1ce091f59 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_sections.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_sections.go
@@ -18,11 +18,11 @@ import (
 )
 
 // Sections returns the top level sections.
-func (s *SiteInfo) Sections() page.Pages {
+func (s *Site) Sections() page.Pages {
 	return s.Home().Sections()
 }
 
 // Home is a shortcut to the home page, equivalent to .Site.GetPage "home".
-func (s *SiteInfo) Home() page.Page {
+func (s *Site) Home() page.Page {
 	return s.s.home
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/site_sections_test.go b/hugolib/site_sections_test.go
index ccc8c51cb..5c97163cb 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_sections_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_sections_test.go
@@ -28,7 +28,6 @@ func TestNestedSections(t *testing.T) {
 	var (
 		c       = qt.New(t)
 		cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-		th      = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
 	)
 
 	cfg.Set("permalinks", map[string]string{
@@ -114,7 +113,9 @@ PAG|{{ .Title }}|{{ $sect.InSection . }}
 
 	cfg.Set("paginate", 2)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	th, configs := newTestHelperFromProvider(cfg, fs, t)
+
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 21)
 
@@ -315,7 +316,7 @@ PAG|{{ .Title }}|{{ $sect.InSection . }}
 	c.Assert(len(home.Ancestors()), qt.Equals, 0)
 
 	c.Assert(len(home.Sections()), qt.Equals, 9)
-	c.Assert(s.Info.Sections(), deepEqualsPages, home.Sections())
+	c.Assert(s.Sections(), deepEqualsPages, home.Sections())
 
 	rootPage := s.getPage(page.KindPage, "mypage.md")
 	c.Assert(rootPage, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
diff --git a/hugolib/site_test.go b/hugolib/site_test.go
index 494c41c88..be59b17a7 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_test.go
@@ -36,19 +36,10 @@ const (
 	templateWithURLAbs  = "<a href=\"/foobar.jpg\">Going</a>"
 )
 
-func TestRenderWithInvalidTemplate(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
-
-	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "foo.md"), "foo")
-
-	withTemplate := createWithTemplateFromNameValues("missing", templateMissingFunc)
-
-	buildSingleSiteExpected(t, true, false, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg, WithTemplate: withTemplate}, BuildCfg{})
-}
-
 func TestDraftAndFutureRender(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
 	sources := [][2]string{
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc1.md"), "---\ntitle: doc1\ndraft: true\npublishdate: \"2414-05-29\"\n---\n# doc1\n*some content*"},
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc2.md"), "---\ntitle: doc2\ndraft: true\npublishdate: \"2012-05-29\"\n---\n# doc2\n*some content*"},
@@ -64,12 +55,14 @@ func TestDraftAndFutureRender(t *testing.T) {
 		for i := 0; i < len(configKeyValues); i += 2 {
 			cfg.Set(configKeyValues[i].(string), configKeyValues[i+1])
 		}
+		configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 		for _, src := range sources {
 			writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", src[0]), src[1])
 		}
 
-		return buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+		return buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 	}
 
 	// Testing Defaults.. Only draft:true and publishDate in the past should be rendered
@@ -105,6 +98,7 @@ func TestDraftAndFutureRender(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestFutureExpirationRender(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	c := qt.New(t)
 	sources := [][2]string{
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc3.md"), "---\ntitle: doc1\nexpirydate: \"2400-05-29\"\n---\n# doc1\n*some content*"},
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc4.md"), "---\ntitle: doc2\nexpirydate: \"2000-05-29\"\n---\n# doc2\n*some content*"},
@@ -114,11 +108,14 @@ func TestFutureExpirationRender(t *testing.T) {
 		cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 		cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub")
 
+		configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 		for _, src := range sources {
 			writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", src[0]), src[1])
 		}
 
-		return buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+		return buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 	}
 
 	s := siteSetup(t)
@@ -143,6 +140,8 @@ func TestLastChange(t *testing.T) {
 
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect/doc1.md"), "---\ntitle: doc1\nweight: 1\ndate: 2014-05-29\n---\n# doc1\n*some content*")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect/doc2.md"), "---\ntitle: doc2\nweight: 2\ndate: 2015-05-29\n---\n# doc2\n*some content*")
@@ -150,22 +149,24 @@ func TestLastChange(t *testing.T) {
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect/doc4.md"), "---\ntitle: doc4\nweight: 4\ndate: 2016-05-29\n---\n# doc4\n*some content*")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect/doc5.md"), "---\ntitle: doc5\nweight: 3\n---\n# doc5\n*some content*")
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
-	c.Assert(s.Info.LastChange().IsZero(), qt.Equals, false)
-	c.Assert(s.Info.LastChange().Year(), qt.Equals, 2017)
+	c.Assert(s.LastChange().IsZero(), qt.Equals, false)
+	c.Assert(s.LastChange().Year(), qt.Equals, 2017)
 }
 
 // Issue #_index
 func TestPageWithUnderScoreIndexInFilename(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	c := qt.New(t)
 
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
-	c := qt.New(t)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect/my_index_file.md"), "---\ntitle: doc1\nweight: 1\ndate: 2014-05-29\n---\n# doc1\n*some content*")
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 1)
 }
@@ -239,23 +240,25 @@ THE END.`, refShortcode),
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", baseURL)
 	cfg.Set("uglyURLs", uglyURLs)
 	cfg.Set("verbose", true)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	for _, src := range sources {
 		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", src[0]), src[1])
 	}
+	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "single.html"), "{{.Content}}")
 
 	s := buildSingleSite(
 		t,
 		deps.DepsCfg{
-			Fs:           fs,
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			WithTemplate: createWithTemplateFromNameValues("_default/single.html", "{{.Content}}"),
+			Fs:      fs,
+			Configs: configs,
 		},
 		BuildCfg{})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 4)
 
-	th := newTestHelper(s.Cfg, s.Fs, t)
+	th := newTestHelper(s.conf, s.Fs, t)
 
 	tests := []struct {
 		doc      string
@@ -289,6 +292,9 @@ func doTestShouldAlwaysHaveUglyURLs(t *testing.T, uglyURLs bool) {
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub")
 	cfg.Set("uglyURLs", uglyURLs)
 
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 	sources := [][2]string{
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc1.md"), "---\nmarkup: markdown\n---\n# title\nsome *content*"},
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc2.md"), "---\nurl: /ugly.html\nmarkup: markdown\n---\n# title\ndoc2 *content*"},
@@ -304,7 +310,7 @@ func doTestShouldAlwaysHaveUglyURLs(t *testing.T, uglyURLs bool) {
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "rss.xml"), "<root>RSS</root>")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "sitemap.xml"), "<root>SITEMAP</root>")
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	var expectedPagePath string
 	if uglyURLs {
@@ -341,14 +347,18 @@ func doTestShouldAlwaysHaveUglyURLs(t *testing.T, uglyURLs bool) {
 
 // Issue #3355
 func TestShouldNotWriteZeroLengthFilesToDestination(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "simple.html"), "simple")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default/single.html"), "{{.Content}}")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default/list.html"), "")
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
-	th := newTestHelper(s.Cfg, s.Fs, t)
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
+	th := newTestHelper(s.conf, s.Fs, t)
 
 	th.assertFileNotExist(filepath.Join("public", "index.html"))
 }
@@ -357,7 +367,7 @@ func TestMainSections(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	for _, paramSet := range []bool{false, true} {
 		c.Run(fmt.Sprintf("param-%t", paramSet), func(c *qt.C) {
-			v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+			v := config.New()
 			if paramSet {
 				v.Set("params", map[string]any{
 					"mainSections": []string{"a1", "a2"},
@@ -407,6 +417,101 @@ Main section page: {{ .RelPermalink }}
 	}
 }
 
+func TestMainSectionsMoveToSite(t *testing.T) {
+
+	t.Run("defined in params", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- config.toml --
+disableKinds = ['RSS','sitemap','taxonomy','term']
+[params]
+mainSections=["a", "b"]
+-- content/mysect/page1.md --
+-- layouts/index.html --
+{{/* Behaviour before Hugo 0.112.0. */}}
+MainSections Params: {{ site.Params.mainSections }}|
+MainSections Site method: {{ site.MainSections }}|
+	
+	
+	`
+
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
+			},
+		).Build()
+
+		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
+MainSections Params: [a b]|
+MainSections Site method: [a b]|
+	`)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("defined in top level config", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- config.toml --
+disableKinds = ['RSS','sitemap','taxonomy','term']
+mainSections=["a", "b"]
+[params]
+[params.sub]
+mainSections=["c", "d"]
+-- content/mysect/page1.md --
+-- layouts/index.html --
+{{/* Behaviour before Hugo 0.112.0. */}}
+MainSections Params: {{ site.Params.mainSections }}|
+MainSections Param sub: {{ site.Params.sub.mainSections }}|
+MainSections Site method: {{ site.MainSections }}|
+
+
+`
+
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
+			},
+		).Build()
+
+		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
+MainSections Params: [a b]|
+MainSections Param sub: [c d]|
+MainSections Site method: [a b]|
+`)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("guessed from pages", func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Parallel()
+
+		files := `
+-- config.toml --
+disableKinds = ['RSS','sitemap','taxonomy','term']
+-- content/mysect/page1.md --
+-- layouts/index.html --
+MainSections Params: {{ site.Params.mainSections }}|
+MainSections Site method: {{ site.MainSections }}|
+	
+	
+	`
+
+		b := NewIntegrationTestBuilder(
+			IntegrationTestConfig{
+				T:           t,
+				TxtarString: files,
+			},
+		).Build()
+
+		b.AssertFileContent("public/index.html", `
+MainSections Params: [mysect]|
+MainSections Site method: [mysect]|
+	`)
+	})
+
+}
+
 // Issue #1176
 func TestSectionNaming(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, canonify := range []bool{true, false} {
@@ -450,6 +555,9 @@ func doTestSectionNaming(t *testing.T, canonify, uglify, pluralize bool) {
 	cfg.Set("pluralizeListTitles", pluralize)
 	cfg.Set("canonifyURLs", canonify)
 
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 	for _, src := range sources {
 		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", src[0]), src[1])
 	}
@@ -457,13 +565,11 @@ func doTestSectionNaming(t *testing.T, canonify, uglify, pluralize bool) {
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default/single.html"), "{{.Content}}")
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default/list.html"), "{{ .Kind }}|{{.Title}}")
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
-	mainSections, err := s.Info.Param("mainSections")
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(mainSections, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"sect"})
+	c.Assert(s.MainSections(), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"sect"})
 
-	th := newTestHelper(s.Cfg, s.Fs, t)
+	th := newTestHelper(s.conf, s.Fs, t)
 	tests := []struct {
 		doc         string
 		pluralAware bool
@@ -489,6 +595,7 @@ func doTestSectionNaming(t *testing.T, canonify, uglify, pluralize bool) {
 
 func TestAbsURLify(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	c := qt.New(t)
 	sources := [][2]string{
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc1.html"), "<!doctype html><html><head></head><body><a href=\"#frag1\">link</a></body></html>"},
 		{filepath.FromSlash("blue/doc2.html"), "---\nf: t\n---\n<!doctype html><html><body>more content</body></html>"},
@@ -502,14 +609,17 @@ func TestAbsURLify(t *testing.T) {
 			cfg.Set("canonifyURLs", canonify)
 			cfg.Set("baseURL", baseURL)
 
+			configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
 			for _, src := range sources {
 				writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", src[0]), src[1])
 			}
 
 			writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "blue/single.html"), templateWithURLAbs)
 
-			s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
-			th := newTestHelper(s.Cfg, s.Fs, t)
+			s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
+			th := newTestHelper(s.conf, s.Fs, t)
 
 			tests := []struct {
 				file, expected string
@@ -595,14 +705,17 @@ var weightedSources = [][2]string{
 
 func TestOrderedPages(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	c := qt.New(t)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub")
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	for _, src := range weightedSources {
 		writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", src[0]), src[1])
 	}
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	if s.getPage(page.KindSection, "sect").Pages()[1].Title() != "Three" || s.getPage(page.KindSection, "sect").Pages()[2].Title() != "Four" {
 		t.Error("Pages in unexpected order.")
@@ -650,17 +763,15 @@ var groupedSources = [][2]string{
 
 func TestGroupedPages(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	defer func() {
-		if r := recover(); r != nil {
-			fmt.Println("Recovered in f", r)
-		}
-	}()
+	c := qt.New(t)
 
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub")
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSourcesToSource(t, "content", fs, groupedSources...)
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	rbysection, err := s.RegularPages().GroupBy(context.Background(), "Section", "desc")
 	if err != nil {
@@ -816,6 +927,8 @@ Front Matter with weighted tags and categories`
 
 func TestWeightedTaxonomies(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
 	sources := [][2]string{
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc1.md"), pageWithWeightedTaxonomies2},
 		{filepath.FromSlash("sect/doc2.md"), pageWithWeightedTaxonomies1},
@@ -830,9 +943,11 @@ func TestWeightedTaxonomies(t *testing.T) {
 
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub")
 	cfg.Set("taxonomies", taxonomies)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSourcesToSource(t, "content", fs, sources...)
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	if s.Taxonomies()["tags"]["a"][0].Page.Title() != "foo" {
 		t.Errorf("Pages in unexpected order, 'foo' expected first, got '%v'", s.Taxonomies()["tags"]["a"][0].Page.Title())
@@ -882,8 +997,13 @@ func setupLinkingMockSite(t *testing.T) *Site {
 	})
 	cfg.Set("pluralizeListTitles", false)
 	cfg.Set("canonifyURLs", false)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+
 	writeSourcesToSource(t, "content", fs, sources...)
-	return buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	return buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 }
 
 func TestRefLinking(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/hugolib/site_url_test.go b/hugolib/site_url_test.go
index ec68d21fc..62483093c 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_url_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_url_test.go
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@ package hugolib
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
-	"html/template"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -39,44 +38,19 @@ var urlFakeSource = [][2]string{
 	{filepath.FromSlash("content/blue/doc2.md"), slugDoc2},
 }
 
-// Issue #1105
-func TestShouldNotAddTrailingSlashToBaseURL(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	for i, this := range []struct {
-		in       string
-		expected string
-	}{
-		{"http://base.com/", "http://base.com/"},
-		{"http://base.com/sub/", "http://base.com/sub/"},
-		{"http://base.com/sub", "http://base.com/sub"},
-		{"http://base.com", "http://base.com"},
-	} {
-
-		cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
-		cfg.Set("baseURL", this.in)
-		d := deps.DepsCfg{Cfg: cfg, Fs: fs}
-		s, err := NewSiteForCfg(d)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(s.initializeSiteInfo(), qt.IsNil)
-
-		if s.Info.BaseURL() != template.URL(this.expected) {
-			t.Errorf("[%d] got %s expected %s", i, s.Info.BaseURL(), this.expected)
-		}
-	}
-}
-
 func TestPageCount(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	c := qt.New(t)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	cfg.Set("uglyURLs", false)
 	cfg.Set("paginate", 10)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSourcesToSource(t, "", fs, urlFakeSource...)
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
-	_, err := s.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly.Open("public/blue")
+	_, err = s.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly.Open("public/blue")
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Errorf("No indexed rendered.")
 	}
@@ -113,11 +87,13 @@ Do not go gentle into that good night.
 	cfg.Set("uglyURLs", map[string]bool{
 		"sect2": true,
 	})
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect1", "p1.md"), dt)
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect2", "p2.md"), dt)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{SkipRender: true})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 2)
 
@@ -159,9 +135,8 @@ Do not go gentle into that good night.
 `
 
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
-	th := newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
-
 	cfg.Set("paginate", 1)
+	th, configs := newTestHelperFromProvider(cfg, fs, t)
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect1", "_index.md"), fmt.Sprintf(st, "/ss1/"))
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "sect2", "_index.md"), fmt.Sprintf(st, "/ss2/"))
@@ -175,7 +150,7 @@ Do not go gentle into that good night.
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("layouts", "_default", "list.html"),
 		"<html><body>P{{.Paginator.PageNumber}}|URL: {{.Paginator.URL}}|{{ if .Paginator.HasNext }}Next: {{.Paginator.Next.URL }}{{ end }}</body></html>")
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	c.Assert(len(s.RegularPages()), qt.Equals, 10)
 
diff --git a/hugolib/sitemap_test.go b/hugolib/sitemap_test.go
index cb4eea234..984943c6f 100644
--- a/hugolib/sitemap_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/sitemap_test.go
@@ -20,7 +20,6 @@ import (
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
 )
 
 const sitemapTemplate = `<urlset xmlns="http://www.sitemaps.org/schemas/sitemap/0.9">
@@ -47,24 +46,19 @@ func doTestSitemapOutput(t *testing.T, internal bool) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "http://auth/bub/")
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	writeSource(t, fs, "layouts/sitemap.xml", sitemapTemplate)
+	// We want to check that the 404 page is not included in the sitemap
+	// output. This template should have no effect either way, but include
+	// it for the clarity.
+	writeSource(t, fs, "layouts/404.html", "Not found")
 
-	depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}
-
-	depsCfg.WithTemplate = func(templ tpl.TemplateManager) error {
-		if !internal {
-			templ.AddTemplate("sitemap.xml", sitemapTemplate)
-		}
-
-		// We want to check that the 404 page is not included in the sitemap
-		// output. This template should have no effect either way, but include
-		// it for the clarity.
-		templ.AddTemplate("404.html", "Not found")
-		return nil
-	}
+	depsCfg := deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}
 
 	writeSourcesToSource(t, "content", fs, weightedSources...)
 	s := buildSingleSite(t, depsCfg, BuildCfg{})
-	th := newTestHelper(s.Cfg, s.Fs, t)
+	th := newTestHelper(s.conf, s.Fs, t)
 	outputSitemap := "public/sitemap.xml"
 
 	th.assertFileContent(outputSitemap,
@@ -87,14 +81,17 @@ func doTestSitemapOutput(t *testing.T, internal bool) {
 
 func TestParseSitemap(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	expected := config.Sitemap{Priority: 3.0, Filename: "doo.xml", ChangeFreq: "3"}
+	expected := config.SitemapConfig{Priority: 3.0, Filename: "doo.xml", ChangeFreq: "3"}
 	input := map[string]any{
 		"changefreq": "3",
 		"priority":   3.0,
 		"filename":   "doo.xml",
 		"unknown":    "ignore",
 	}
-	result := config.DecodeSitemap(config.Sitemap{}, input)
+	result, err := config.DecodeSitemap(config.SitemapConfig{}, input)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Failed to parse sitemap: %s", err)
+	}
 
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(expected, result) {
 		t.Errorf("Got \n%v expected \n%v", result, expected)
diff --git a/hugolib/taxonomy_test.go b/hugolib/taxonomy_test.go
index b6b696ed3..94e937c81 100644
--- a/hugolib/taxonomy_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/taxonomy_test.go
@@ -29,14 +29,17 @@ import (
 
 func TestTaxonomiesCountOrder(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	taxonomies := make(map[string]string)
+	c := qt.New(t)
 
+	taxonomies := make(map[string]string)
 	taxonomies["tag"] = "tags"
 	taxonomies["category"] = "categories"
 
 	cfg, fs := newTestCfg()
 
 	cfg.Set("taxonomies", taxonomies)
+	configs, err := loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	const pageContent = `---
 tags: ['a', 'B', 'c']
@@ -46,7 +49,7 @@ YAML frontmatter with tags and categories taxonomy.`
 
 	writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", "page.md"), pageContent)
 
-	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+	s := buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 
 	st := make([]string, 0)
 	for _, t := range s.Taxonomies()["tags"].ByCount() {
diff --git a/hugolib/template_test.go b/hugolib/template_test.go
index f9d54d8dc..802ce40e2 100644
--- a/hugolib/template_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/template_test.go
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
@@ -30,9 +31,10 @@ import (
 
 func TestTemplateLookupOrder(t *testing.T) {
 	var (
-		fs  *hugofs.Fs
-		cfg config.Provider
-		th  testHelper
+		fs      *hugofs.Fs
+		cfg     config.Provider
+		th      testHelper
+		configs *allconfig.Configs
 	)
 
 	// Variants base templates:
@@ -189,7 +191,8 @@ func TestTemplateLookupOrder(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Run(this.name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			// TODO(bep) there are some function vars need to pull down here to enable => t.Parallel()
 			cfg, fs = newTestCfg()
-			th = newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
+			this.setup(t)
+			th, configs = newTestHelperFromProvider(cfg, fs, t)
 
 			for i := 1; i <= 3; i++ {
 				writeSource(t, fs, filepath.Join("content", fmt.Sprintf("sect%d", i), fmt.Sprintf("page%d.md", i)), `---
@@ -199,9 +202,7 @@ Some content
 `)
 			}
 
-			this.setup(t)
-
-			buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg}, BuildCfg{})
+			buildSingleSite(t, deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: configs}, BuildCfg{})
 			// helpers.PrintFs(s.BaseFs.Layouts.Fs, "", os.Stdout)
 			this.assert(t)
 		})
diff --git a/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go b/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go
index 89255c695..0ba861fdb 100644
--- a/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/testhelpers_test.go
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"time"
 	"unicode/utf8"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
 
@@ -53,12 +54,14 @@ import (
 var (
 	deepEqualsPages         = qt.CmpEquals(cmp.Comparer(func(p1, p2 *pageState) bool { return p1 == p2 }))
 	deepEqualsOutputFormats = qt.CmpEquals(cmp.Comparer(func(o1, o2 output.Format) bool {
-		return o1.Name == o2.Name && o1.MediaType.Type() == o2.MediaType.Type()
+		return o1.Name == o2.Name && o1.MediaType.Type == o2.MediaType.Type
 	}))
 )
 
 type sitesBuilder struct {
 	Cfg     config.Provider
+	Configs *allconfig.Configs
+
 	environ []string
 
 	Fs      *hugofs.Fs
@@ -113,8 +116,9 @@ type filenameContent struct {
 }
 
 func newTestSitesBuilder(t testing.TB) *sitesBuilder {
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
+	v := config.New()
+	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(afero.NewMemMapFs(), v)
 
 	litterOptions := litter.Options{
 		HidePrivateFields: true,
@@ -138,11 +142,11 @@ func newTestSitesBuilderFromDepsCfg(t testing.TB, d deps.DepsCfg) *sitesBuilder
 	}
 
 	b := &sitesBuilder{T: t, C: c, depsCfg: d, Fs: d.Fs, dumper: litterOptions, rnd: rand.New(rand.NewSource(time.Now().Unix()))}
-	workingDir := d.Cfg.GetString("workingDir")
+	workingDir := d.Configs.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig.WorkingDir
 
 	b.WithWorkingDir(workingDir)
 
-	return b.WithViper(d.Cfg.(config.Provider))
+	return b
 }
 
 func (s *sitesBuilder) Running() *sitesBuilder {
@@ -479,20 +483,28 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) LoadConfig() error {
 		s.WithSimpleConfigFile()
 	}
 
-	cfg, _, err := LoadConfig(ConfigSourceDescriptor{
-		WorkingDir: s.workingDir,
-		Fs:         s.Fs.Source,
-		Logger:     s.logger,
-		Environ:    s.environ,
-		Filename:   "config." + s.configFormat,
-	}, func(cfg config.Provider) error {
-		return nil
+	flags := config.New()
+	flags.Set("internal", map[string]any{
+		"running": s.running,
+	})
+
+	if s.workingDir != "" {
+		flags.Set("workingDir", s.workingDir)
+	}
+
+	res, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{
+		Fs:       s.Fs.Source,
+		Logger:   s.logger,
+		Flags:    flags,
+		Environ:  s.environ,
+		Filename: "config." + s.configFormat,
 	})
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	s.Cfg = cfg
+	s.Cfg = res.LoadingInfo.Cfg
+	s.Configs = res
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -536,11 +548,13 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) CreateSitesE() error {
 
 	depsCfg := s.depsCfg
 	depsCfg.Fs = s.Fs
-	depsCfg.Cfg = s.Cfg
+	if depsCfg.Configs.IsZero() {
+		depsCfg.Configs = s.Configs
+	}
 	depsCfg.Logger = s.logger
-	depsCfg.Running = s.running
 
 	sites, err := NewHugoSites(depsCfg)
+
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to create sites: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -640,8 +654,8 @@ date: "2018-02-28"
 		defaultTemplates = []string{
 			"_default/single.html", "Single: {{ .Title }}|{{ i18n \"hello\" }}|{{.Language.Lang}}|RelPermalink: {{ .RelPermalink }}|Permalink: {{ .Permalink }}|{{ .Content }}|Resources: {{ range .Resources }}{{ .MediaType }}: {{ .RelPermalink}} -- {{ end }}|Summary: {{ .Summary }}|Truncated: {{ .Truncated }}|Parent: {{ .Parent.Title }}",
 			"_default/list.html", "List Page " + listTemplateCommon,
-			"index.html", "{{ $p := .Paginator }}Default Home Page {{ $p.PageNumber }}: {{ .Title }}|{{ .IsHome }}|{{ i18n \"hello\" }}|{{ .Permalink }}|{{  .Site.Data.hugo.slogan }}|String Resource: {{ ( \"Hugo Pipes\" | resources.FromString \"text/pipes.txt\").RelPermalink  }}",
-			"index.fr.html", "{{ $p := .Paginator }}French Home Page {{ $p.PageNumber }}: {{ .Title }}|{{ .IsHome }}|{{ i18n \"hello\" }}|{{ .Permalink }}|{{  .Site.Data.hugo.slogan }}|String Resource: {{ ( \"Hugo Pipes\" | resources.FromString \"text/pipes.txt\").RelPermalink  }}",
+			"index.html", "{{ $p := .Paginator }}Default Home Page {{ $p.PageNumber }}: {{ .Title }}|{{ .IsHome }}|{{ i18n \"hello\" }}|{{ .Permalink }}|{{  .Site.Data.hugo.slogan }}|String Resource: {{ ( \"Hugo Pipes\" | resources.FromString \"text/pipes.txt\").RelPermalink  }}|String Resource Permalink: {{ ( \"Hugo Pipes\" | resources.FromString \"text/pipes.txt\").Permalink  }}",
+			"index.fr.html", "{{ $p := .Paginator }}French Home Page {{ $p.PageNumber }}: {{ .Title }}|{{ .IsHome }}|{{ i18n \"hello\" }}|{{ .Permalink }}|{{  .Site.Data.hugo.slogan }}|String Resource: {{ ( \"Hugo Pipes\" | resources.FromString \"text/pipes.txt\").RelPermalink  }}|String Resource Permalink: {{ ( \"Hugo Pipes\" | resources.FromString \"text/pipes.txt\").Permalink  }}",
 			"_default/terms.html", "Taxonomy Term Page " + listTemplateCommon,
 			"_default/taxonomy.html", "Taxonomy List Page " + listTemplateCommon,
 			// Shortcodes
@@ -741,7 +755,7 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) AssertFileContent(filename string, matches ...string) {
 				continue
 			}
 			if !strings.Contains(content, match) {
-				s.Fatalf("No match for %q in content for %s\n%s\n%q", match, filename, content, content)
+				s.Fatalf("No match for \n%q in content\n%q\nin file %s\n", match, content, filename)
 			}
 		}
 	}
@@ -826,7 +840,18 @@ func (s *sitesBuilder) NpmInstall() hexec.Runner {
 	return command
 }
 
-func newTestHelper(cfg config.Provider, fs *hugofs.Fs, t testing.TB) testHelper {
+func newTestHelperFromProvider(cfg config.Provider, fs *hugofs.Fs, t testing.TB) (testHelper, *allconfig.Configs) {
+	res, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{
+		Flags: cfg,
+		Fs:    fs.Source,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	return newTestHelper(res.Base, fs, t), res
+}
+
+func newTestHelper(cfg *allconfig.Config, fs *hugofs.Fs, t testing.TB) testHelper {
 	return testHelper{
 		Cfg: cfg,
 		Fs:  fs,
@@ -835,7 +860,7 @@ func newTestHelper(cfg config.Provider, fs *hugofs.Fs, t testing.TB) testHelper
 }
 
 type testHelper struct {
-	Cfg config.Provider
+	Cfg *allconfig.Config
 	Fs  *hugofs.Fs
 	*qt.C
 }
@@ -871,8 +896,8 @@ func (th testHelper) assertFileNotExist(filename string) {
 }
 
 func (th testHelper) replaceDefaultContentLanguageValue(value string) string {
-	defaultInSubDir := th.Cfg.GetBool("defaultContentLanguageInSubDir")
-	replace := th.Cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage") + "/"
+	defaultInSubDir := th.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir
+	replace := th.Cfg.DefaultContentLanguage + "/"
 
 	if !defaultInSubDir {
 		value = strings.Replace(value, replace, "", 1)
@@ -880,42 +905,42 @@ func (th testHelper) replaceDefaultContentLanguageValue(value string) string {
 	return value
 }
 
-func loadTestConfig(fs afero.Fs, withConfig ...func(cfg config.Provider) error) (config.Provider, error) {
-	v, _, err := LoadConfig(ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: fs}, withConfig...)
-	return v, err
+func loadTestConfig(fs afero.Fs) (*allconfig.Configs, error) {
+	res, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: fs})
+	return res, err
+}
+
+func loadTestConfigFromProvider(cfg config.Provider) (*allconfig.Configs, error) {
+	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
+	fs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	if workingDir != "" {
+		fs.MkdirAll(workingDir, 0755)
+	}
+	res, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Flags: cfg, Fs: fs})
+	return res, err
 }
 
 func newTestCfgBasic() (config.Provider, *hugofs.Fs) {
 	mm := afero.NewMemMapFs()
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
+	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
 	v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(mm), v)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(mm), v)
 
 	return v, fs
 }
 
 func newTestCfg(withConfig ...func(cfg config.Provider) error) (config.Provider, *hugofs.Fs) {
 	mm := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	cfg := config.New()
+	// Default is false, but true is easier to use as default in tests
+	cfg.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
 
-	v, err := loadTestConfig(mm, func(cfg config.Provider) error {
-		// Default is false, but true is easier to use as default in tests
-		cfg.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(mm), cfg)
 
-		for _, w := range withConfig {
-			w(cfg)
-		}
-
-		return nil
-	})
-
-	if err != nil && err != ErrNoConfigFile {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(mm), v)
-
-	return v, fs
+	return cfg, fs
 }
 
 func newTestSitesFromConfig(t testing.TB, afs afero.Fs, tomlConfig string, layoutPathContentPairs ...string) (testHelper, *HugoSites) {
@@ -928,17 +953,17 @@ func newTestSitesFromConfig(t testing.TB, afs afero.Fs, tomlConfig string, layou
 	writeToFs(t, afs, filepath.Join("content", ".gitkeep"), "")
 	writeToFs(t, afs, "config.toml", tomlConfig)
 
-	cfg, err := LoadConfigDefault(afs)
+	cfg, err := allconfig.LoadConfig(allconfig.ConfigSourceDescriptor{Fs: afs})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, cfg)
-	th := newTestHelper(cfg, fs, t)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, cfg.LoadingInfo.BaseConfig)
+	th := newTestHelper(cfg.Base, fs, t)
 
 	for i := 0; i < len(layoutPathContentPairs); i += 2 {
 		writeSource(t, fs, layoutPathContentPairs[i], layoutPathContentPairs[i+1])
 	}
 
-	h, err := NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Cfg: cfg})
+	h, err := NewHugoSites(deps.DepsCfg{Fs: fs, Configs: cfg})
 
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
diff --git a/langs/config.go b/langs/config.go
index 81e6fc2ab..3c7278388 100644
--- a/langs/config.go
+++ b/langs/config.go
@@ -14,213 +14,34 @@
 package langs
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"sort"
-	"strings"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cast"
-
-	"errors"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 )
 
-type LanguagesConfig struct {
-	Languages                      Languages
-	Multihost                      bool
-	DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir bool
-}
+// LanguageConfig holds the configuration for a single language.
+// This is what is read from the config file.
+type LanguageConfig struct {
+	// The language name, e.g. "English".
+	LanguageName string
 
-func LoadLanguageSettings(cfg config.Provider, oldLangs Languages) (c LanguagesConfig, err error) {
-	defaultLang := strings.ToLower(cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage"))
-	if defaultLang == "" {
-		defaultLang = "en"
-		cfg.Set("defaultContentLanguage", defaultLang)
-	}
-
-	var languages map[string]any
-
-	languagesFromConfig := cfg.GetParams("languages")
-	disableLanguages := cfg.GetStringSlice("disableLanguages")
-
-	if len(disableLanguages) == 0 {
-		languages = languagesFromConfig
-	} else {
-		languages = make(maps.Params)
-		for k, v := range languagesFromConfig {
-			for _, disabled := range disableLanguages {
-				if disabled == defaultLang {
-					return c, fmt.Errorf("cannot disable default language %q", defaultLang)
-				}
-
-				if strings.EqualFold(k, disabled) {
-					v.(maps.Params)["disabled"] = true
-					break
-				}
-			}
-			languages[k] = v
-		}
-	}
+	// The language title. When set, this will
+	// override site.Title for this language.
+	Title string
 
-	var languages2 Languages
-
-	if len(languages) == 0 {
-		languages2 = append(languages2, NewDefaultLanguage(cfg))
-	} else {
-		languages2, err = toSortedLanguages(cfg, languages)
-		if err != nil {
-			return c, fmt.Errorf("Failed to parse multilingual config: %w", err)
-		}
-	}
-
-	if oldLangs != nil {
-		// When in multihost mode, the languages are mapped to a server, so
-		// some structural language changes will need a restart of the dev server.
-		// The validation below isn't complete, but should cover the most
-		// important cases.
-		var invalid bool
-		if languages2.IsMultihost() != oldLangs.IsMultihost() {
-			invalid = true
-		} else {
-			if languages2.IsMultihost() && len(languages2) != len(oldLangs) {
-				invalid = true
-			}
-		}
-
-		if invalid {
-			return c, errors.New("language change needing a server restart detected")
-		}
-
-		if languages2.IsMultihost() {
-			// We need to transfer any server baseURL to the new language
-			for i, ol := range oldLangs {
-				nl := languages2[i]
-				nl.Set("baseURL", ol.GetString("baseURL"))
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	// The defaultContentLanguage is something the user has to decide, but it needs
-	// to match a language in the language definition list.
-	langExists := false
-	for _, lang := range languages2 {
-		if lang.Lang == defaultLang {
-			langExists = true
-			break
-		}
-	}
-
-	if !langExists {
-		return c, fmt.Errorf("site config value %q for defaultContentLanguage does not match any language definition", defaultLang)
-	}
+	// The language direction, e.g. "ltr" or "rtl".
+	LanguageDirection string
 
-	c.Languages = languages2
-	c.Multihost = languages2.IsMultihost()
-	c.DefaultContentLanguageInSubdir = c.Multihost
-
-	sortedDefaultFirst := make(Languages, len(c.Languages))
-	for i, v := range c.Languages {
-		sortedDefaultFirst[i] = v
-	}
-	sort.Slice(sortedDefaultFirst, func(i, j int) bool {
-		li, lj := sortedDefaultFirst[i], sortedDefaultFirst[j]
-		if li.Lang == defaultLang {
-			return true
-		}
-
-		if lj.Lang == defaultLang {
-			return false
-		}
-
-		return i < j
-	})
-
-	cfg.Set("languagesSorted", c.Languages)
-	cfg.Set("languagesSortedDefaultFirst", sortedDefaultFirst)
-	cfg.Set("multilingual", len(languages2) > 1)
-
-	multihost := c.Multihost
-
-	if multihost {
-		cfg.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
-		cfg.Set("multihost", true)
-	}
-
-	if multihost {
-		// The baseURL may be provided at the language level. If that is true,
-		// then every language must have a baseURL. In this case we always render
-		// to a language sub folder, which is then stripped from all the Permalink URLs etc.
-		for _, l := range languages2 {
-			burl := l.GetLocal("baseURL")
-			if burl == nil {
-				return c, errors.New("baseURL must be set on all or none of the languages")
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	for _, language := range c.Languages {
-		if language.initErr != nil {
-			return c, language.initErr
-		}
-	}
-
-	return c, nil
+	// The language weight. When set to a non-zero value, this will
+	// be the main sort criteria for the language.
+	Weight int
 }
 
-func toSortedLanguages(cfg config.Provider, l map[string]any) (Languages, error) {
-	languages := make(Languages, len(l))
-	i := 0
-
-	for lang, langConf := range l {
-		langsMap, err := maps.ToStringMapE(langConf)
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("Language config is not a map: %T", langConf)
-		}
-
-		language := NewLanguage(lang, cfg)
+func DecodeConfig(m map[string]any) (map[string]LanguageConfig, error) {
+	m = maps.CleanConfigStringMap(m)
+	var langs map[string]LanguageConfig
 
-		for loki, v := range langsMap {
-			switch loki {
-			case "title":
-				language.Title = cast.ToString(v)
-			case "languagename":
-				language.LanguageName = cast.ToString(v)
-			case "languagedirection":
-				language.LanguageDirection = cast.ToString(v)
-			case "weight":
-				language.Weight = cast.ToInt(v)
-			case "contentdir":
-				language.ContentDir = filepath.Clean(cast.ToString(v))
-			case "disabled":
-				language.Disabled = cast.ToBool(v)
-			case "params":
-				m := maps.ToStringMap(v)
-				// Needed for case insensitive fetching of params values
-				maps.PrepareParams(m)
-				for k, vv := range m {
-					language.SetParam(k, vv)
-				}
-			case "timezone":
-				if err := language.loadLocation(cast.ToString(v)); err != nil {
-					return nil, err
-				}
-			}
-
-			// Put all into the Params map
-			language.SetParam(loki, v)
-
-			// Also set it in the configuration map (for baseURL etc.)
-			language.Set(loki, v)
-		}
-
-		languages[i] = language
-		i++
+	if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(m, &langs); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
-
-	sort.Sort(languages)
-
-	return languages, nil
+	return langs, nil
 }
diff --git a/langs/i18n/i18n.go b/langs/i18n/i18n.go
index b7fdc1060..a9b7b4c97 100644
--- a/langs/i18n/i18n.go
+++ b/langs/i18n/i18n.go
@@ -37,12 +37,12 @@ var i18nWarningLogger = helpers.NewDistinctErrorLogger()
 // Translator handles i18n translations.
 type Translator struct {
 	translateFuncs map[string]translateFunc
-	cfg            config.Provider
+	cfg            config.AllProvider
 	logger         loggers.Logger
 }
 
 // NewTranslator creates a new Translator for the given language bundle and configuration.
-func NewTranslator(b *i18n.Bundle, cfg config.Provider, logger loggers.Logger) Translator {
+func NewTranslator(b *i18n.Bundle, cfg config.AllProvider, logger loggers.Logger) Translator {
 	t := Translator{cfg: cfg, logger: logger, translateFuncs: make(map[string]translateFunc)}
 	t.initFuncs(b)
 	return t
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ func (t Translator) Func(lang string) translateFunc {
 		return f
 	}
 	t.logger.Infof("Translation func for language %v not found, use default.", lang)
-	if f, ok := t.translateFuncs[t.cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage")]; ok {
+	if f, ok := t.translateFuncs[t.cfg.DefaultContentLanguage()]; ok {
 		return f
 	}
 
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ func (t Translator) Func(lang string) translateFunc {
 }
 
 func (t Translator) initFuncs(bndl *i18n.Bundle) {
-	enableMissingTranslationPlaceholders := t.cfg.GetBool("enableMissingTranslationPlaceholders")
+	enableMissingTranslationPlaceholders := t.cfg.EnableMissingTranslationPlaceholders()
 	for _, lang := range bndl.LanguageTags() {
 		currentLang := lang
 		currentLangStr := currentLang.String()
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ func (t Translator) initFuncs(bndl *i18n.Bundle) {
 				t.logger.Warnf("Failed to get translated string for language %q and ID %q: %s", currentLangStr, translationID, err)
 			}
 
-			if t.cfg.GetBool("logI18nWarnings") {
+			if t.cfg.LogI18nWarnings() {
 				i18nWarningLogger.Printf("i18n|MISSING_TRANSLATION|%s|%s", currentLangStr, translationID)
 			}
 
diff --git a/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go b/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go
index cddfaf5a2..491ae3373 100644
--- a/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go
+++ b/langs/i18n/i18n_test.go
@@ -20,13 +20,11 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl/tplimpl"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
@@ -34,7 +32,6 @@ import (
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 )
 
 var logger = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
@@ -394,26 +391,22 @@ other = "{{ . }} miesiąca"
 	} {
 
 		c.Run(test.name, func(c *qt.C) {
-			cfg := getConfig()
+			cfg := config.New()
 			cfg.Set("enableMissingTranslationPlaceholders", true)
-			fs := hugofs.NewMem(cfg)
+			cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
+			afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 
-			err := afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join("i18n", test.lang+".toml"), []byte(test.templ), 0755)
+			err := afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join("i18n", test.lang+".toml"), []byte(test.templ), 0755)
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-			tp := NewTranslationProvider()
-			depsCfg := newDepsConfig(tp, cfg, fs)
-			depsCfg.Logger = loggers.NewWarningLogger()
-			d, err := deps.New(depsCfg)
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(d.LoadResources(), qt.IsNil)
+			d, tp := prepareDeps(afs, cfg)
 
 			f := tp.t.Func(test.lang)
 			ctx := context.Background()
 
 			for _, variant := range test.variants {
 				c.Assert(f(ctx, test.id, variant.Key), qt.Equals, variant.Value, qt.Commentf("input: %v", variant.Key))
-				c.Assert(int(depsCfg.Logger.LogCounters().WarnCounter.Count()), qt.Equals, 0)
+				c.Assert(int(d.Log.LogCounters().WarnCounter.Count()), qt.Equals, 0)
 			}
 
 		})
@@ -471,52 +464,33 @@ func TestGetPluralCount(t *testing.T) {
 
 func prepareTranslationProvider(t testing.TB, test i18nTest, cfg config.Provider) *TranslationProvider {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(cfg)
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 
 	for file, content := range test.data {
-		err := afero.WriteFile(fs.Source, filepath.Join("i18n", file), []byte(content), 0755)
+		err := afero.WriteFile(afs, filepath.Join("i18n", file), []byte(content), 0755)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	}
 
-	tp := NewTranslationProvider()
-	depsCfg := newDepsConfig(tp, cfg, fs)
-	d, err := deps.New(depsCfg)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(d.LoadResources(), qt.IsNil)
-
+	_, tp := prepareDeps(afs, cfg)
 	return tp
 }
 
-func newDepsConfig(tp *TranslationProvider, cfg config.Provider, fs *hugofs.Fs) deps.DepsCfg {
-	l := langs.NewLanguage("en", cfg)
-	l.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	return deps.DepsCfg{
-		Language:            l,
-		Site:                page.NewDummyHugoSite(cfg),
-		Cfg:                 cfg,
-		Fs:                  fs,
-		Logger:              logger,
-		TemplateProvider:    tplimpl.DefaultTemplateProvider,
-		TranslationProvider: tp,
-	}
-}
-
-func getConfig() config.Provider {
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
-	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(v)
-	if err != nil {
+func prepareDeps(afs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) (*deps.Deps, *TranslationProvider) {
+	d := testconfig.GetTestDeps(afs, cfg)
+	translationProvider := NewTranslationProvider()
+	d.TemplateProvider = tplimpl.DefaultTemplateProvider
+	d.TranslationProvider = translationProvider
+	d.Site = page.NewDummyHugoSite(cfg)
+	if err := d.Compile(nil); err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
-	v.Set("allModules", modules.Modules{mod})
-
-	return v
+	return d, translationProvider
 }
 
 func TestI18nTranslate(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	var actual, expected string
-	v := getConfig()
+	v := config.New()
 
 	// Test without and with placeholders
 	for _, enablePlaceholders := range []bool{false, true} {
@@ -537,7 +511,7 @@ func TestI18nTranslate(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func BenchmarkI18nTranslate(b *testing.B) {
-	v := getConfig()
+	v := config.New()
 	for _, test := range i18nTests {
 		b.Run(test.name, func(b *testing.B) {
 			tp := prepareTranslationProvider(b, test, v)
diff --git a/langs/i18n/translationProvider.go b/langs/i18n/translationProvider.go
index 782bbf719..6d7b3ecfd 100644
--- a/langs/i18n/translationProvider.go
+++ b/langs/i18n/translationProvider.go
@@ -45,10 +45,10 @@ func NewTranslationProvider() *TranslationProvider {
 }
 
 // Update updates the i18n func in the provided Deps.
-func (tp *TranslationProvider) Update(d *deps.Deps) error {
-	spec := source.NewSourceSpec(d.PathSpec, nil, nil)
+func (tp *TranslationProvider) NewResource(dst *deps.Deps) error {
+	spec := source.NewSourceSpec(dst.PathSpec, nil, nil)
 
-	var defaultLangTag, err = language.Parse(d.Cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage"))
+	var defaultLangTag, err = language.Parse(dst.Conf.DefaultContentLanguage())
 	if err != nil {
 		defaultLangTag = language.English
 	}
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ func (tp *TranslationProvider) Update(d *deps.Deps) error {
 
 	// The source dirs are ordered so the most important comes first. Since this is a
 	// last key win situation, we have to reverse the iteration order.
-	dirs := d.BaseFs.I18n.Dirs
+	dirs := dst.BaseFs.I18n.Dirs
 	for i := len(dirs) - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
 		dir := dirs[i]
 		src := spec.NewFilesystemFromFileMetaInfo(dir)
@@ -76,11 +76,12 @@ func (tp *TranslationProvider) Update(d *deps.Deps) error {
 		}
 	}
 
-	tp.t = NewTranslator(bundle, d.Cfg, d.Log)
+	tp.t = NewTranslator(bundle, dst.Conf, dst.Log)
 
-	d.Translate = tp.t.Func(d.Language.Lang)
+	dst.Translate = tp.t.Func(dst.Conf.Language().Lang)
 
 	return nil
+
 }
 
 const artificialLangTagPrefix = "art-x-"
@@ -123,9 +124,8 @@ func addTranslationFile(bundle *i18n.Bundle, r source.File) error {
 }
 
 // Clone sets the language func for the new language.
-func (tp *TranslationProvider) Clone(d *deps.Deps) error {
-	d.Translate = tp.t.Func(d.Language.Lang)
-
+func (tp *TranslationProvider) CloneResource(dst, src *deps.Deps) error {
+	dst.Translate = tp.t.Func(dst.Conf.Language().Lang)
 	return nil
 }
 
diff --git a/langs/language.go b/langs/language.go
index 9b96ec0a0..c904b0c6b 100644
--- a/langs/language.go
+++ b/langs/language.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -16,8 +16,6 @@ package langs
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
-	"sort"
-	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"time"
 
@@ -25,97 +23,32 @@ import (
 	"golang.org/x/text/language"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/htime"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/locales"
 	translators "github.com/gohugoio/localescompressed"
 )
 
-// These are the settings that should only be looked up in the global Viper
-// config and not per language.
-// This list may not be complete, but contains only settings that we know
-// will be looked up in both.
-// This isn't perfect, but it is ultimately the user who shoots him/herself in
-// the foot.
-// See the pathSpec.
-var globalOnlySettings = map[string]bool{
-	strings.ToLower("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir"): true,
-	strings.ToLower("defaultContentLanguage"):         true,
-	strings.ToLower("multilingual"):                   true,
-	strings.ToLower("assetDir"):                       true,
-	strings.ToLower("resourceDir"):                    true,
-	strings.ToLower("build"):                          true,
-}
-
-// Language manages specific-language configuration.
 type Language struct {
-	Lang              string
-	LanguageName      string
-	LanguageDirection string
-	Title             string
-	Weight            int
-
-	// For internal use.
-	Disabled bool
-
-	// If set per language, this tells Hugo that all content files without any
-	// language indicator (e.g. my-page.en.md) is in this language.
-	// This is usually a path relative to the working dir, but it can be an
-	// absolute directory reference. It is what we get.
-	// For internal use.
-	ContentDir string
-
-	// Global config.
-	// For internal use.
-	Cfg config.Provider
+	// The language code, e.g. "en" or "no".
+	// This is currently only settable as the key in the language map in the config.
+	Lang string
 
-	// Language specific config.
-	// For internal use.
-	LocalCfg config.Provider
-
-	// Composite config.
-	// For internal use.
-	config.Provider
-
-	// These are params declared in the [params] section of the language merged with the
-	// site's params, the most specific (language) wins on duplicate keys.
-	params    map[string]any
-	paramsMu  sync.Mutex
-	paramsSet bool
+	// Fields from the language config.
+	LanguageConfig
 
 	// Used for date formatting etc. We don't want these exported to the
 	// templates.
-	// TODO(bep) do the same for some of the others.
 	translator    locales.Translator
 	timeFormatter htime.TimeFormatter
 	tag           language.Tag
 	collator      *Collator
 	location      *time.Location
-
-	// Error during initialization. Will fail the build.
-	initErr error
-}
-
-// For internal use.
-func (l *Language) String() string {
-	return l.Lang
 }
 
 // NewLanguage creates a new language.
-func NewLanguage(lang string, cfg config.Provider) *Language {
-	// Note that language specific params will be overridden later.
-	// We should improve that, but we need to make a copy:
-	params := make(map[string]any)
-	for k, v := range cfg.GetStringMap("params") {
-		params[k] = v
-	}
-	maps.PrepareParams(params)
-
-	localCfg := config.New()
-	compositeConfig := config.NewCompositeConfig(cfg, localCfg)
+func NewLanguage(lang, defaultContentLanguage, timeZone string, languageConfig LanguageConfig) (*Language, error) {
 	translator := translators.GetTranslator(lang)
 	if translator == nil {
-		translator = translators.GetTranslator(cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage"))
+		translator = translators.GetTranslator(defaultContentLanguage)
 		if translator == nil {
 			translator = translators.GetTranslator("en")
 		}
@@ -134,76 +67,31 @@ func NewLanguage(lang string, cfg config.Provider) *Language {
 	}
 
 	l := &Language{
-		Lang:       lang,
-		ContentDir: cfg.GetString("contentDir"),
-		Cfg:        cfg, LocalCfg: localCfg,
-		Provider:      compositeConfig,
-		params:        params,
-		translator:    translator,
-		timeFormatter: htime.NewTimeFormatter(translator),
-		tag:           tag,
-		collator:      coll,
+		Lang:           lang,
+		LanguageConfig: languageConfig,
+		translator:     translator,
+		timeFormatter:  htime.NewTimeFormatter(translator),
+		tag:            tag,
+		collator:       coll,
 	}
 
-	if err := l.loadLocation(cfg.GetString("timeZone")); err != nil {
-		l.initErr = err
-	}
+	return l, l.loadLocation(timeZone)
 
-	return l
 }
 
-// NewDefaultLanguage creates the default language for a config.Provider.
-// If not otherwise specified the default is "en".
-func NewDefaultLanguage(cfg config.Provider) *Language {
-	defaultLang := cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage")
-
-	if defaultLang == "" {
-		defaultLang = "en"
+func (l *Language) loadLocation(tzStr string) error {
+	location, err := time.LoadLocation(tzStr)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("invalid timeZone for language %q: %w", l.Lang, err)
 	}
+	l.location = location
 
-	return NewLanguage(defaultLang, cfg)
+	return nil
 }
 
 // Languages is a sortable list of languages.
 type Languages []*Language
 
-// NewLanguages creates a sorted list of languages.
-// NOTE: function is currently unused.
-func NewLanguages(l ...*Language) Languages {
-	languages := make(Languages, len(l))
-	for i := 0; i < len(l); i++ {
-		languages[i] = l[i]
-	}
-	sort.Sort(languages)
-	return languages
-}
-
-func (l Languages) Len() int { return len(l) }
-func (l Languages) Less(i, j int) bool {
-	wi, wj := l[i].Weight, l[j].Weight
-
-	if wi == wj {
-		return l[i].Lang < l[j].Lang
-	}
-
-	return wj == 0 || wi < wj
-}
-
-func (l Languages) Swap(i, j int) { l[i], l[j] = l[j], l[i] }
-
-// Params returns language-specific params merged with the global params.
-func (l *Language) Params() maps.Params {
-	// TODO(bep) this construct should not be needed. Create the
-	// language params in one go.
-	l.paramsMu.Lock()
-	defer l.paramsMu.Unlock()
-	if !l.paramsSet {
-		maps.PrepareParams(l.params)
-		l.paramsSet = true
-	}
-	return l.params
-}
-
 func (l Languages) AsSet() map[string]bool {
 	m := make(map[string]bool)
 	for _, lang := range l {
@@ -222,73 +110,6 @@ func (l Languages) AsOrdinalSet() map[string]int {
 	return m
 }
 
-// IsMultihost returns whether there are more than one language and at least one of
-// the languages has baseURL specified on the language level.
-func (l Languages) IsMultihost() bool {
-	if len(l) <= 1 {
-		return false
-	}
-
-	for _, lang := range l {
-		if lang.GetLocal("baseURL") != nil {
-			return true
-		}
-	}
-	return false
-}
-
-// SetParam sets a param with the given key and value.
-// SetParam is case-insensitive.
-// For internal use.
-func (l *Language) SetParam(k string, v any) {
-	l.paramsMu.Lock()
-	defer l.paramsMu.Unlock()
-	if l.paramsSet {
-		panic("params cannot be changed once set")
-	}
-	l.params[k] = v
-}
-
-// GetLocal gets a configuration value set on language level. It will
-// not fall back to any global value.
-// It will return nil if a value with the given key cannot be found.
-// For internal use.
-func (l *Language) GetLocal(key string) any {
-	if l == nil {
-		panic("language not set")
-	}
-	key = strings.ToLower(key)
-	if !globalOnlySettings[key] {
-		return l.LocalCfg.Get(key)
-	}
-	return nil
-}
-
-// For internal use.
-func (l *Language) Set(k string, v any) {
-	k = strings.ToLower(k)
-	if globalOnlySettings[k] {
-		return
-	}
-	l.Provider.Set(k, v)
-}
-
-// Merge is currently not supported for Language.
-// For internal use.
-func (l *Language) Merge(key string, value any) {
-	panic("Not supported")
-}
-
-// IsSet checks whether the key is set in the language or the related config store.
-// For internal use.
-func (l *Language) IsSet(key string) bool {
-	key = strings.ToLower(key)
-	if !globalOnlySettings[key] {
-		return l.Provider.IsSet(key)
-	}
-	return l.Cfg.IsSet(key)
-}
-
 // Internal access to unexported Language fields.
 // This construct is to prevent them from leaking to the templates.
 
@@ -308,16 +129,6 @@ func GetCollator(l *Language) *Collator {
 	return l.collator
 }
 
-func (l *Language) loadLocation(tzStr string) error {
-	location, err := time.LoadLocation(tzStr)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("invalid timeZone for language %q: %w", l.Lang, err)
-	}
-	l.location = location
-
-	return nil
-}
-
 type Collator struct {
 	sync.Mutex
 	c *collate.Collator
diff --git a/langs/language_test.go b/langs/language_test.go
index 264e813a0..e2c734567 100644
--- a/langs/language_test.go
+++ b/langs/language_test.go
@@ -18,39 +18,10 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"golang.org/x/text/collate"
 	"golang.org/x/text/language"
 )
 
-func TestGetGlobalOnlySetting(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	v.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", true)
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	v.Set("paginatePath", "page")
-	lang := NewDefaultLanguage(v)
-	lang.Set("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir", false)
-	lang.Set("paginatePath", "side")
-
-	c.Assert(lang.GetBool("defaultContentLanguageInSubdir"), qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(lang.GetString("paginatePath"), qt.Equals, "side")
-}
-
-func TestLanguageParams(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	v.Set("p1", "p1cfg")
-	v.Set("contentDir", "content")
-
-	lang := NewDefaultLanguage(v)
-	lang.SetParam("p1", "p1p")
-
-	c.Assert(lang.Params()["p1"], qt.Equals, "p1p")
-	c.Assert(lang.Get("p1"), qt.Equals, "p1cfg")
-}
-
 func TestCollator(t *testing.T) {
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
diff --git a/livereload/livereload.go b/livereload/livereload.go
index 16957a7cc..9223d1497 100644
--- a/livereload/livereload.go
+++ b/livereload/livereload.go
@@ -145,7 +145,7 @@ func refreshPathForPort(s string, port int) {
 
 // ServeJS serves the liverreload.js who's reference is injected into the page.
 func ServeJS(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
-	w.Header().Set("Content-Type", media.JavascriptType.Type())
+	w.Header().Set("Content-Type", media.Builtin.JavascriptType.Type)
 	w.Write(liveReloadJS())
 }
 
diff --git a/main.go b/main.go
index 8e81854ce..e08bf7c53 100644
--- a/main.go
+++ b/main.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,19 +14,15 @@
 package main
 
 import (
+	"log"
 	"os"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/commands"
 )
 
 func main() {
-	resp := commands.Execute(os.Args[1:])
-
-	if resp.Err != nil {
-		if resp.IsUserError() {
-			resp.Cmd.Println("")
-			resp.Cmd.Println(resp.Cmd.UsageString())
-		}
-		os.Exit(-1)
+	err := commands.Execute(os.Args[1:])
+	if err != nil {
+		log.Fatal(err)
 	}
 }
diff --git a/main_test.go b/main_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ffd700d57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/main_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,382 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package main
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"fmt"
+	"io/fs"
+	"io/ioutil"
+	"log"
+	"net/http"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"regexp"
+	"runtime"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/bep/helpers/envhelpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/commands"
+	"github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal/testscript"
+)
+
+func TestCommands(t *testing.T) {
+	p := commonTestScriptsParam
+	p.Dir = "testscripts/commands"
+	testscript.Run(t, p)
+}
+
+// Tests in development can be put in "testscripts/unfinished".
+// Also see the watch_testscripts.sh script.
+func TestUnfinished(t *testing.T) {
+	if os.Getenv("CI") != "" {
+		t.Skip("skip unfinished tests on CI")
+	}
+
+	p := commonTestScriptsParam
+	p.Dir = "testscripts/unfinished"
+
+	testscript.Run(t, p)
+}
+
+func TestMain(m *testing.M) {
+	type testInfo struct {
+		BaseURLs []string
+	}
+	os.Exit(
+		testscript.RunMain(m, map[string]func() int{
+			// The main program.
+			"hugo": func() int {
+				err := commands.Execute(os.Args[1:])
+				if err != nil {
+					fmt.Fprintln(os.Stderr, err)
+					return 1
+				}
+				return 0
+			},
+		}),
+	)
+}
+
+var commonTestScriptsParam = testscript.Params{
+	Setup: func(env *testscript.Env) error {
+		return testSetupFunc()(env)
+	},
+	Cmds: map[string]func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string){
+		// log prints to stderr.
+		"log": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			log.Println(args)
+		},
+		// dostounix converts \r\n to \n.
+		"dostounix": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			filename := ts.MkAbs(args[0])
+			b, err := os.ReadFile(filename)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("%v", err)
+			}
+			b = bytes.Replace(b, []byte("\r\n"), []byte{'\n'}, -1)
+			if err := os.WriteFile(filename, b, 0666); err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("%v", err)
+			}
+		},
+		// cat prints a file to stdout.
+		"cat": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			filename := ts.MkAbs(args[0])
+			b, err := os.ReadFile(filename)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("%v", err)
+			}
+			fmt.Print(string(b))
+		},
+		// sleep sleeps for a second.
+		"sleep": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			i := 1
+			if len(args) > 0 {
+				var err error
+				i, err = strconv.Atoi(args[0])
+				if err != nil {
+					i = 1
+				}
+			}
+			time.Sleep(time.Duration(i) * time.Second)
+
+		},
+		// ls lists a directory to stdout.
+		"ls": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			var dirname string
+			if len(args) > 0 {
+				dirname = args[0]
+			}
+			dirname = ts.MkAbs(args[0])
+
+			dir, err := os.Open(dirname)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("%v", err)
+			}
+			fis, err := dir.Readdir(-1)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("%v", err)
+			}
+			for _, fi := range fis {
+				fmt.Fprintf(ts.Stdout(), "%s %04o %s %s\n", fi.Mode(), fi.Mode().Perm(), fi.ModTime().Format(time.RFC3339Nano), fi.Name())
+			}
+		},
+		// append appends to a file with a leaading newline.
+		"append": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			if len(args) < 2 {
+				ts.Fatalf("usage: append FILE TEXT")
+			}
+
+			filename := ts.MkAbs(args[0])
+			words := args[1:]
+			for i, word := range words {
+				words[i] = strings.Trim(word, "\"")
+			}
+			text := strings.Join(words, " ")
+
+			_, err := os.Stat(filename)
+			if err != nil {
+				if os.IsNotExist(err) {
+					ts.Fatalf("file does not exist: %s", filename)
+				}
+				ts.Fatalf("failed to stat file: %v", err)
+			}
+
+			f, err := os.OpenFile(filename, os.O_APPEND|os.O_WRONLY, 0o644)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("failed to open file: %v", err)
+			}
+			defer f.Close()
+
+			_, err = f.WriteString("\n" + text)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("failed to write to file: %v", err)
+			}
+		},
+		// replace replaces a string in a file.
+		"replace": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			if len(args) < 3 {
+				ts.Fatalf("usage: replace FILE OLD NEW")
+			}
+			filename := ts.MkAbs(args[0])
+			oldContent, err := os.ReadFile(filename)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("failed to read file %v", err)
+			}
+			newContent := bytes.Replace(oldContent, []byte(args[1]), []byte(args[2]), -1)
+			err = os.WriteFile(filename, newContent, 0o644)
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("failed to write file: %v", err)
+			}
+		},
+
+		// httpget checks that a HTTP resource's body matches (if it compiles as a regexp) or contains all of the strings given as arguments.
+		"httpget": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			if len(args) < 2 {
+				ts.Fatalf("usage: httpgrep URL STRING...")
+			}
+
+			tryget := func() error {
+				resp, err := http.Get(args[0])
+				if err != nil {
+					return fmt.Errorf("failed to get URL %q: %v", args[0], err)
+				}
+
+				defer resp.Body.Close()
+				body, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+				if err != nil {
+					return fmt.Errorf("failed to read response body: %v", err)
+				}
+				for _, s := range args[1:] {
+					re, err := regexp.Compile(s)
+					if err == nil {
+						ok := re.Match(body)
+						if ok != !neg {
+							return fmt.Errorf("response body %q for URL %q does not match %q", body, args[0], s)
+						}
+					} else {
+						ok := bytes.Contains(body, []byte(s))
+						if ok != !neg {
+							return fmt.Errorf("response body %q for URL %q does not contain %q", body, args[0], s)
+						}
+					}
+				}
+				return nil
+
+			}
+
+			// The timing on server rebuilds can be a little tricky to get right,
+			// so we try again a few times until the server is ready.
+			// There may be smarter ways to do this, but this works.
+			start := time.Now()
+			for {
+				time.Sleep(200 * time.Millisecond)
+				err := tryget()
+				if err == nil {
+					return
+				}
+				if time.Since(start) > 6*time.Second {
+					ts.Fatalf("timeout waiting for %q: %v", args[0], err)
+				}
+			}
+		},
+		// checkfile checks that a file exists and is not empty.
+		"checkfile": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			var readonly, exec bool
+		loop:
+			for len(args) > 0 {
+				switch args[0] {
+				case "-readonly":
+					readonly = true
+					args = args[1:]
+				case "-exec":
+					exec = true
+					args = args[1:]
+				default:
+					break loop
+				}
+			}
+			if len(args) == 0 {
+				ts.Fatalf("usage: checkfile [-readonly] [-exec] file...")
+			}
+
+			for _, filename := range args {
+				filename = ts.MkAbs(filename)
+				fi, err := os.Stat(filename)
+				ok := err == nil != neg
+				if !ok {
+					ts.Fatalf("stat %s: %v", filename, err)
+				}
+				if fi.Size() == 0 {
+					ts.Fatalf("%s is empty", filename)
+				}
+				if readonly && fi.Mode()&0o222 != 0 {
+					ts.Fatalf("%s is writable", filename)
+				}
+				if exec && runtime.GOOS != "windows" && fi.Mode()&0o111 == 0 {
+					ts.Fatalf("%s is not executable", filename)
+				}
+			}
+		},
+
+		// checkfilecount checks that the number of files in a directory is equal to the given count.
+		"checkfilecount": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			if len(args) != 2 {
+				ts.Fatalf("usage: checkfilecount count dir")
+			}
+			count, err := strconv.Atoi(args[0])
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("invalid count: %v", err)
+			}
+			if count < 0 {
+				ts.Fatalf("count must be non-negative")
+			}
+			dir := args[1]
+			dir = ts.MkAbs(dir)
+
+			found := 0
+
+			filepath.WalkDir(dir, func(path string, d fs.DirEntry, err error) error {
+				if err != nil {
+					return err
+				}
+				if d.IsDir() {
+					return nil
+				}
+				found++
+				return nil
+			})
+
+			ok := found == count != neg
+			if !ok {
+				ts.Fatalf("found %d files, want %d", found, count)
+			}
+		},
+		// waitServer waits for the .ready file to be created by the server.
+		"waitServer": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			type testInfo struct {
+				BaseURLs []string
+			}
+
+			// The server will write a .ready file when ready.
+			// We wait for that.
+			readyFilename := ts.MkAbs(".ready")
+			limit := time.Now().Add(5 * time.Second)
+			for {
+				_, err := os.Stat(readyFilename)
+				if err != nil {
+					time.Sleep(500 * time.Millisecond)
+					if time.Now().After(limit) {
+						ts.Fatalf("timeout waiting for .ready file")
+					}
+					continue
+				}
+				var info testInfo
+				// Read the .ready file's JSON into info.
+				f, err := os.Open(readyFilename)
+				if err == nil {
+					err = json.NewDecoder(f).Decode(&info)
+					f.Close()
+				} else {
+					ts.Fatalf("failed to open .ready file: %v", err)
+				}
+
+				for i, s := range info.BaseURLs {
+					ts.Setenv(fmt.Sprintf("HUGOTEST_BASEURL_%d", i), s)
+				}
+
+				return
+			}
+
+		},
+		"stopServer": func(ts *testscript.TestScript, neg bool, args []string) {
+			baseURL := ts.Getenv("HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0")
+			if baseURL == "" {
+				ts.Fatalf("HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 not set")
+			}
+			if !strings.HasSuffix(baseURL, "/") {
+				baseURL += "/"
+			}
+			resp, err := http.Head(baseURL + "__stop")
+			if err != nil {
+				ts.Fatalf("failed to shutdown server: %v", err)
+			}
+			resp.Body.Close()
+			// Allow some time for the server to shut down.
+			time.Sleep(2 * time.Second)
+
+		},
+	},
+}
+
+func testSetupFunc() func(env *testscript.Env) error {
+	return func(env *testscript.Env) error {
+		var keyVals []string
+		keyVals = append(keyVals, "HUGO_TESTRUN", "true")
+		hugoCachedDir := filepath.Join(env.WorkDir, "hugocache")
+		keyVals = append(keyVals, "HUGO_CACHEDIR", hugoCachedDir)
+
+		goVersion := runtime.Version()
+		// Strip all but the major and minor version.
+		goVersion = regexp.MustCompile(`^go(\d+\.\d+)`).FindStringSubmatch(goVersion)[1]
+		keyVals = append(keyVals, "GOVERSION", goVersion)
+		envhelpers.SetEnvVars(&env.Vars, keyVals...)
+
+		return nil
+	}
+}
diff --git a/markup/asciidocext/convert.go b/markup/asciidocext/convert.go
index c3bd90edd..ecf3eb9ac 100644
--- a/markup/asciidocext/convert.go
+++ b/markup/asciidocext/convert.go
@@ -17,26 +17,11 @@
 package asciidocext
 
 import (
-	"bytes"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/asciidocext/asciidocext_config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/asciidocext/internal"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/internal"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/tableofcontents"
-	"golang.org/x/net/html"
 )
 
-/* ToDo: RelPermalink patch for svg posts not working*/
-type pageSubset interface {
-	RelPermalink() string
-}
-
 // Provider is the package entry point.
 var Provider converter.ProviderProvider = provider{}
 
@@ -44,274 +29,16 @@ type provider struct{}
 
 func (p provider) New(cfg converter.ProviderConfig) (converter.Provider, error) {
 	return converter.NewProvider("asciidocext", func(ctx converter.DocumentContext) (converter.Converter, error) {
-		return &asciidocConverter{
-			ctx: ctx,
-			cfg: cfg,
+		return &internal.AsciidocConverter{
+			Ctx: ctx,
+			Cfg: cfg,
 		}, nil
 	}), nil
 }
 
-type asciidocResult struct {
-	converter.ResultRender
-	toc *tableofcontents.Fragments
-}
-
-func (r asciidocResult) TableOfContents() *tableofcontents.Fragments {
-	return r.toc
-}
-
-type asciidocConverter struct {
-	ctx converter.DocumentContext
-	cfg converter.ProviderConfig
-}
-
-func (a *asciidocConverter) Convert(ctx converter.RenderContext) (converter.ResultRender, error) {
-	b, err := a.getAsciidocContent(ctx.Src, a.ctx)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	content, toc, err := a.extractTOC(b)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-	return asciidocResult{
-		ResultRender: converter.Bytes(content),
-		toc:          toc,
-	}, nil
-}
-
-func (a *asciidocConverter) Supports(_ identity.Identity) bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-// getAsciidocContent calls asciidoctor as an external helper
-// to convert AsciiDoc content to HTML.
-func (a *asciidocConverter) getAsciidocContent(src []byte, ctx converter.DocumentContext) ([]byte, error) {
-	if !hasAsciiDoc() {
-		a.cfg.Logger.Errorln("asciidoctor not found in $PATH: Please install.\n",
-			"                 Leaving AsciiDoc content unrendered.")
-		return src, nil
-	}
-
-	args := a.parseArgs(ctx)
-	args = append(args, "-")
-
-	a.cfg.Logger.Infoln("Rendering", ctx.DocumentName, " using asciidoctor args", args, "...")
-
-	return internal.ExternallyRenderContent(a.cfg, ctx, src, asciiDocBinaryName, args)
-}
-
-func (a *asciidocConverter) parseArgs(ctx converter.DocumentContext) []string {
-	cfg := a.cfg.MarkupConfig.AsciidocExt
-	args := []string{}
-
-	args = a.appendArg(args, "-b", cfg.Backend, asciidocext_config.CliDefault.Backend, asciidocext_config.AllowedBackend)
-
-	for _, extension := range cfg.Extensions {
-		if strings.LastIndexAny(extension, `\/.`) > -1 {
-			a.cfg.Logger.Errorln("Unsupported asciidoctor extension was passed in. Extension `" + extension + "` ignored. Only installed asciidoctor extensions are allowed.")
-			continue
-		}
-		args = append(args, "-r", extension)
-	}
-
-	for attributeKey, attributeValue := range cfg.Attributes {
-		if asciidocext_config.DisallowedAttributes[attributeKey] {
-			a.cfg.Logger.Errorln("Unsupported asciidoctor attribute was passed in. Attribute `" + attributeKey + "` ignored.")
-			continue
-		}
-
-		args = append(args, "-a", attributeKey+"="+attributeValue)
-	}
-
-	if cfg.WorkingFolderCurrent {
-		contentDir := filepath.Dir(ctx.Filename)
-		sourceDir := a.cfg.Cfg.GetString("source")
-		destinationDir := a.cfg.Cfg.GetString("destination")
-
-		if destinationDir == "" {
-			a.cfg.Logger.Errorln("markup.asciidocext.workingFolderCurrent requires hugo command option --destination to be set")
-		}
-		if !filepath.IsAbs(destinationDir) && sourceDir != "" {
-			destinationDir = filepath.Join(sourceDir, destinationDir)
-		}
-
-		var outDir string
-		var err error
-
-		file := filepath.Base(ctx.Filename)
-		if a.cfg.Cfg.GetBool("uglyUrls") || file == "_index.adoc" || file == "index.adoc" {
-			outDir, err = filepath.Abs(filepath.Dir(filepath.Join(destinationDir, ctx.DocumentName)))
-		} else {
-			postDir := ""
-			page, ok := ctx.Document.(pageSubset)
-			if ok {
-				postDir = filepath.Base(page.RelPermalink())
-			} else {
-				a.cfg.Logger.Errorln("unable to cast interface to pageSubset")
-			}
-
-			outDir, err = filepath.Abs(filepath.Join(destinationDir, filepath.Dir(ctx.DocumentName), postDir))
-		}
-
-		if err != nil {
-			a.cfg.Logger.Errorln("asciidoctor outDir: ", err)
-		}
-
-		args = append(args, "--base-dir", contentDir, "-a", "outdir="+outDir)
-	}
-
-	if cfg.NoHeaderOrFooter {
-		args = append(args, "--no-header-footer")
-	} else {
-		a.cfg.Logger.Warnln("asciidoctor parameter NoHeaderOrFooter is expected for correct html rendering")
-	}
-
-	if cfg.SectionNumbers {
-		args = append(args, "--section-numbers")
-	}
-
-	if cfg.Verbose {
-		args = append(args, "--verbose")
-	}
-
-	if cfg.Trace {
-		args = append(args, "--trace")
-	}
-
-	args = a.appendArg(args, "--failure-level", cfg.FailureLevel, asciidocext_config.CliDefault.FailureLevel, asciidocext_config.AllowedFailureLevel)
-
-	args = a.appendArg(args, "--safe-mode", cfg.SafeMode, asciidocext_config.CliDefault.SafeMode, asciidocext_config.AllowedSafeMode)
-
-	return args
-}
-
-func (a *asciidocConverter) appendArg(args []string, option, value, defaultValue string, allowedValues map[string]bool) []string {
-	if value != defaultValue {
-		if allowedValues[value] {
-			args = append(args, option, value)
-		} else {
-			a.cfg.Logger.Errorln("Unsupported asciidoctor value `" + value + "` for option " + option + " was passed in and will be ignored.")
-		}
-	}
-	return args
-}
-
-const asciiDocBinaryName = "asciidoctor"
-
-func hasAsciiDoc() bool {
-	return hexec.InPath(asciiDocBinaryName)
-}
-
-// extractTOC extracts the toc from the given src html.
-// It returns the html without the TOC, and the TOC data
-func (a *asciidocConverter) extractTOC(src []byte) ([]byte, *tableofcontents.Fragments, error) {
-	var buf bytes.Buffer
-	buf.Write(src)
-	node, err := html.Parse(&buf)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, err
-	}
-	var (
-		f       func(*html.Node) bool
-		toc     *tableofcontents.Fragments
-		toVisit []*html.Node
-	)
-	f = func(n *html.Node) bool {
-		if n.Type == html.ElementNode && n.Data == "div" && attr(n, "id") == "toc" {
-			toc = parseTOC(n)
-			if !a.cfg.MarkupConfig.AsciidocExt.PreserveTOC {
-				n.Parent.RemoveChild(n)
-			}
-			return true
-		}
-		if n.FirstChild != nil {
-			toVisit = append(toVisit, n.FirstChild)
-		}
-		if n.NextSibling != nil && f(n.NextSibling) {
-			return true
-		}
-		for len(toVisit) > 0 {
-			nv := toVisit[0]
-			toVisit = toVisit[1:]
-			if f(nv) {
-				return true
-			}
-		}
-		return false
-	}
-	f(node)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, err
-	}
-	buf.Reset()
-	err = html.Render(&buf, node)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, err
-	}
-	// ltrim <html><head></head><body> and rtrim </body></html> which are added by html.Render
-	res := buf.Bytes()[25:]
-	res = res[:len(res)-14]
-	return res, toc, nil
-}
-
-// parseTOC returns a TOC root from the given toc Node
-func parseTOC(doc *html.Node) *tableofcontents.Fragments {
-	var (
-		toc tableofcontents.Builder
-		f   func(*html.Node, int, int)
-	)
-	f = func(n *html.Node, row, level int) {
-		if n.Type == html.ElementNode {
-			switch n.Data {
-			case "ul":
-				if level == 0 {
-					row++
-				}
-				level++
-				f(n.FirstChild, row, level)
-			case "li":
-				for c := n.FirstChild; c != nil; c = c.NextSibling {
-					if c.Type != html.ElementNode || c.Data != "a" {
-						continue
-					}
-					href := attr(c, "href")[1:]
-					toc.AddAt(&tableofcontents.Heading{
-						Title: nodeContent(c),
-						ID:    href,
-					}, row, level)
-				}
-				f(n.FirstChild, row, level)
-			}
-		}
-		if n.NextSibling != nil {
-			f(n.NextSibling, row, level)
-		}
-	}
-	f(doc.FirstChild, -1, 0)
-	return toc.Build()
-}
-
-func attr(node *html.Node, key string) string {
-	for _, a := range node.Attr {
-		if a.Key == key {
-			return a.Val
-		}
-	}
-	return ""
-}
-
-func nodeContent(node *html.Node) string {
-	var buf bytes.Buffer
-	for c := node.FirstChild; c != nil; c = c.NextSibling {
-		html.Render(&buf, c)
-	}
-	return buf.String()
-}
-
 // Supports returns whether Asciidoctor is installed on this computer.
 func Supports() bool {
-	hasBin := hasAsciiDoc()
+	hasBin := internal.HasAsciiDoc()
 	if htesting.SupportsAll() {
 		if !hasBin {
 			panic("asciidoctor not installed")
diff --git a/markup/asciidocext/convert_test.go b/markup/asciidocext/convert_test.go
index 47208c066..cdc981263 100644
--- a/markup/asciidocext/convert_test.go
+++ b/markup/asciidocext/convert_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2020 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
 // external binary. The `asciidoc` module is reserved for a future golang
 // implementation.
 
-package asciidocext
+package asciidocext_test
 
 import (
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -26,8 +26,12 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/asciidocext"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/asciidocext/internal"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/markup_config"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
@@ -35,13 +39,12 @@ import (
 func TestAsciidoctorDefaultArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	cfg := config.New()
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afero.NewMemMapFs(), cfg)
 
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -49,17 +52,16 @@ func TestAsciidoctorDefaultArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+	ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 	c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	args := ac.parseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
+	args := ac.ParseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	expected := []string{"--no-header-footer"}
 	c.Assert(args, qt.DeepEquals, expected)
 }
 
 func TestAsciidoctorNonDefaultArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
 	mconf := markup_config.Default
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.Backend = "manpage"
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.NoHeaderOrFooter = false
@@ -68,11 +70,13 @@ func TestAsciidoctorNonDefaultArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.Verbose = true
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.Trace = false
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.FailureLevel = "warn"
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigSectionFromStruct("markup", mconf)
+
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -80,28 +84,29 @@ func TestAsciidoctorNonDefaultArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+	ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 	c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	args := ac.parseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
+	args := ac.ParseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	expected := []string{"-b", "manpage", "--section-numbers", "--verbose", "--failure-level", "warn", "--safe-mode", "safe"}
 	c.Assert(args, qt.DeepEquals, expected)
 }
 
 func TestAsciidoctorDisallowedArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
 	mconf := markup_config.Default
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.Backend = "disallowed-backend"
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.Extensions = []string{"./disallowed-extension"}
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.Attributes = map[string]string{"outdir": "disallowed-attribute"}
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.SafeMode = "disallowed-safemode"
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.FailureLevel = "disallowed-failurelevel"
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigSectionFromStruct("markup", mconf)
+
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -109,24 +114,23 @@ func TestAsciidoctorDisallowedArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+	ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 	c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	args := ac.parseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
+	args := ac.ParseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	expected := []string{"--no-header-footer"}
 	c.Assert(args, qt.DeepEquals, expected)
 }
 
 func TestAsciidoctorArbitraryExtension(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
 	mconf := markup_config.Default
 	mconf.AsciidocExt.Extensions = []string{"arbitrary-extension"}
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigSectionFromStruct("markup", mconf)
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -134,17 +138,17 @@ func TestAsciidoctorArbitraryExtension(t *testing.T) {
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+	ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 	c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	args := ac.parseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
+	args := ac.ParseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	expected := []string{"-r", "arbitrary-extension", "--no-header-footer"}
 	c.Assert(args, qt.DeepEquals, expected)
 }
 
 func TestAsciidoctorDisallowedExtension(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
+
 	for _, disallowedExtension := range []string{
 		`foo-bar//`,
 		`foo-bar\\ `,
@@ -156,11 +160,11 @@ func TestAsciidoctorDisallowedExtension(t *testing.T) {
 	} {
 		mconf := markup_config.Default
 		mconf.AsciidocExt.Extensions = []string{disallowedExtension}
-		p, err := Provider.New(
+		conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigSectionFromStruct("markup", mconf)
+		p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 			converter.ProviderConfig{
-				Cfg:          cfg,
-				MarkupConfig: mconf,
-				Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+				Conf:   conf,
+				Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 			},
 		)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -168,10 +172,10 @@ func TestAsciidoctorDisallowedExtension(t *testing.T) {
 		conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-		ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+		ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 		c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-		args := ac.parseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
+		args := ac.ParseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
 		expected := []string{"--no-header-footer"}
 		c.Assert(args, qt.DeepEquals, expected)
 	}
@@ -179,15 +183,19 @@ func TestAsciidoctorDisallowedExtension(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestAsciidoctorWorkingFolderCurrent(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.WorkingFolderCurrent = true
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.Trace = false
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.asciidocext]
+workingFolderCurrent = true
+trace = false
+`)
+
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afero.NewMemMapFs(), cfg)
+
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -196,32 +204,35 @@ func TestAsciidoctorWorkingFolderCurrent(t *testing.T) {
 	conv, err := p.New(ctx)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+	ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 	c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	args := ac.parseArgs(ctx)
+	args := ac.ParseArgs(ctx)
 	c.Assert(len(args), qt.Equals, 5)
 	c.Assert(args[0], qt.Equals, "--base-dir")
 	c.Assert(filepath.ToSlash(args[1]), qt.Matches, "/tmp/hugo_asciidoc_ddd/docs/chapter2")
 	c.Assert(args[2], qt.Equals, "-a")
-	c.Assert(args[3], qt.Matches, `outdir=.*[/\\]{1,2}asciidocext[/\\]{1,2}chapter2`)
+	c.Assert(args[3], qt.Matches, `outdir=.*chapter2`)
 	c.Assert(args[4], qt.Equals, "--no-header-footer")
 }
 
 func TestAsciidoctorWorkingFolderCurrentAndExtensions(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.NoHeaderOrFooter = true
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.Extensions = []string{"asciidoctor-html5s", "asciidoctor-diagram"}
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.Backend = "html5s"
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.WorkingFolderCurrent = true
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.Trace = false
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.asciidocext]
+backend = "html5s"
+workingFolderCurrent = true
+trace = false
+noHeaderOrFooter = true
+extensions = ["asciidoctor-html5s", "asciidoctor-diagram"]
+`)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afero.NewMemMapFs(), cfg)
+
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -229,10 +240,10 @@ func TestAsciidoctorWorkingFolderCurrentAndExtensions(t *testing.T) {
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+	ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 	c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
-	args := ac.parseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
+	args := ac.ParseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(len(args), qt.Equals, 11)
 	c.Assert(args[0], qt.Equals, "-b")
 	c.Assert(args[1], qt.Equals, "html5s")
@@ -249,15 +260,19 @@ func TestAsciidoctorWorkingFolderCurrentAndExtensions(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestAsciidoctorAttributes(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.Attributes = map[string]string{"my-base-url": "https://gohugo.io/", "my-attribute-name": "my value"}
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.Trace = false
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.asciidocext]
+trace = false
+[markup.asciidocext.attributes]
+my-base-url = "https://gohugo.io/"
+my-attribute-name = "my value" 
+`)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			Cfg:          cfg,
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -265,7 +280,7 @@ func TestAsciidoctorAttributes(t *testing.T) {
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	ac := conv.(*asciidocConverter)
+	ac := conv.(*internal.AsciidocConverter)
 	c.Assert(ac, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
 	expectedValues := map[string]bool{
@@ -273,7 +288,7 @@ func TestAsciidoctorAttributes(t *testing.T) {
 		"my-attribute-name=my value":     true,
 	}
 
-	args := ac.parseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
+	args := ac.ParseArgs(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(len(args), qt.Equals, 5)
 	c.Assert(args[0], qt.Equals, "-a")
 	c.Assert(expectedValues[args[1]], qt.Equals, true)
@@ -282,15 +297,23 @@ func TestAsciidoctorAttributes(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(args[4], qt.Equals, "--no-header-footer")
 }
 
-func getProvider(c *qt.C, mconf markup_config.Config) converter.Provider {
-	sc := security.DefaultConfig
-	sc.Exec.Allow = security.NewWhitelist("asciidoctor")
+func getProvider(c *qt.C, mConfStr string) converter.Provider {
+	confStr := `
+[security]
+[security.exec]
+allow = ['asciidoctor']  
+`
+	confStr += mConfStr
 
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(confStr)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+	securityConfig := conf.GetConfigSection("security").(security.Config)
+
+	p, err := asciidocext.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
-			Exec:         hexec.New(sc),
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Exec:   hexec.New(securityConfig),
 		},
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -298,12 +321,12 @@ func getProvider(c *qt.C, mconf markup_config.Config) converter.Provider {
 }
 
 func TestConvert(t *testing.T) {
-	if !Supports() {
+	if !asciidocext.Supports() {
 		t.Skip("asciidoctor not installed")
 	}
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	p := getProvider(c, markup_config.Default)
+	p := getProvider(c, "")
 
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -314,11 +337,11 @@ func TestConvert(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestTableOfContents(t *testing.T) {
-	if !Supports() {
+	if !asciidocext.Supports() {
 		t.Skip("asciidoctor not installed")
 	}
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	p := getProvider(c, markup_config.Default)
+	p := getProvider(c, "")
 
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -349,11 +372,11 @@ testContent
 }
 
 func TestTableOfContentsWithCode(t *testing.T) {
-	if !Supports() {
+	if !asciidocext.Supports() {
 		t.Skip("asciidoctor not installed")
 	}
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	p := getProvider(c, markup_config.Default)
+	p := getProvider(c, "")
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	r, err := conv.Convert(converter.RenderContext{Src: []byte(`:toc: auto
@@ -368,13 +391,16 @@ func TestTableOfContentsWithCode(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestTableOfContentsPreserveTOC(t *testing.T) {
-	if !Supports() {
+	if !asciidocext.Supports() {
 		t.Skip("asciidoctor not installed")
 	}
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.AsciidocExt.PreserveTOC = true
-	p := getProvider(c, mconf)
+	confStr := `
+[markup]
+[markup.asciidocExt]
+preserveTOC = true
+	`
+	p := getProvider(c, confStr)
 
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
diff --git a/markup/asciidocext/internal/converter.go b/markup/asciidocext/internal/converter.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5108bdd0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/markup/asciidocext/internal/converter.go
@@ -0,0 +1,274 @@
+package internal
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/asciidocext/asciidocext_config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/internal"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/tableofcontents"
+	"golang.org/x/net/html"
+)
+
+type AsciidocConverter struct {
+	Ctx converter.DocumentContext
+	Cfg converter.ProviderConfig
+}
+
+type AsciidocResult struct {
+	converter.ResultRender
+	toc *tableofcontents.Fragments
+}
+
+/* ToDo: RelPermalink patch for svg posts not working*/
+type pageSubset interface {
+	RelPermalink() string
+}
+
+func (r AsciidocResult) TableOfContents() *tableofcontents.Fragments {
+	return r.toc
+}
+
+func (a *AsciidocConverter) Convert(ctx converter.RenderContext) (converter.ResultRender, error) {
+	b, err := a.GetAsciidocContent(ctx.Src, a.Ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	content, toc, err := a.extractTOC(b)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return AsciidocResult{
+		ResultRender: converter.Bytes(content),
+		toc:          toc,
+	}, nil
+}
+
+func (a *AsciidocConverter) Supports(_ identity.Identity) bool {
+	return false
+}
+
+// GetAsciidocContent calls asciidoctor as an external helper
+// to convert AsciiDoc content to HTML.
+func (a *AsciidocConverter) GetAsciidocContent(src []byte, ctx converter.DocumentContext) ([]byte, error) {
+	if !HasAsciiDoc() {
+		a.Cfg.Logger.Errorln("asciidoctor not found in $PATH: Please install.\n",
+			"                 Leaving AsciiDoc content unrendered.")
+		return src, nil
+	}
+
+	args := a.ParseArgs(ctx)
+	args = append(args, "-")
+
+	a.Cfg.Logger.Infoln("Rendering", ctx.DocumentName, " using asciidoctor args", args, "...")
+
+	return internal.ExternallyRenderContent(a.Cfg, ctx, src, asciiDocBinaryName, args)
+}
+
+func (a *AsciidocConverter) ParseArgs(ctx converter.DocumentContext) []string {
+	cfg := a.Cfg.MarkupConfig().AsciidocExt
+	args := []string{}
+
+	args = a.AppendArg(args, "-b", cfg.Backend, asciidocext_config.CliDefault.Backend, asciidocext_config.AllowedBackend)
+
+	for _, extension := range cfg.Extensions {
+		if strings.LastIndexAny(extension, `\/.`) > -1 {
+			a.Cfg.Logger.Errorln("Unsupported asciidoctor extension was passed in. Extension `" + extension + "` ignored. Only installed asciidoctor extensions are allowed.")
+			continue
+		}
+		args = append(args, "-r", extension)
+	}
+
+	for attributeKey, attributeValue := range cfg.Attributes {
+		if asciidocext_config.DisallowedAttributes[attributeKey] {
+			a.Cfg.Logger.Errorln("Unsupported asciidoctor attribute was passed in. Attribute `" + attributeKey + "` ignored.")
+			continue
+		}
+
+		args = append(args, "-a", attributeKey+"="+attributeValue)
+	}
+
+	if cfg.WorkingFolderCurrent {
+		contentDir := filepath.Dir(ctx.Filename)
+		destinationDir := a.Cfg.Conf.BaseConfig().PublishDir
+
+		if destinationDir == "" {
+			a.Cfg.Logger.Errorln("markup.asciidocext.workingFolderCurrent requires hugo command option --destination to be set")
+		}
+
+		var outDir string
+		var err error
+
+		file := filepath.Base(ctx.Filename)
+		if a.Cfg.Conf.IsUglyURLs("") || file == "_index.adoc" || file == "index.adoc" {
+			outDir, err = filepath.Abs(filepath.Dir(filepath.Join(destinationDir, ctx.DocumentName)))
+		} else {
+			postDir := ""
+			page, ok := ctx.Document.(pageSubset)
+			if ok {
+				postDir = filepath.Base(page.RelPermalink())
+			} else {
+				a.Cfg.Logger.Errorln("unable to cast interface to pageSubset")
+			}
+
+			outDir, err = filepath.Abs(filepath.Join(destinationDir, filepath.Dir(ctx.DocumentName), postDir))
+		}
+
+		if err != nil {
+			a.Cfg.Logger.Errorln("asciidoctor outDir: ", err)
+		}
+
+		args = append(args, "--base-dir", contentDir, "-a", "outdir="+outDir)
+	}
+
+	if cfg.NoHeaderOrFooter {
+		args = append(args, "--no-header-footer")
+	} else {
+		a.Cfg.Logger.Warnln("asciidoctor parameter NoHeaderOrFooter is expected for correct html rendering")
+	}
+
+	if cfg.SectionNumbers {
+		args = append(args, "--section-numbers")
+	}
+
+	if cfg.Verbose {
+		args = append(args, "--verbose")
+	}
+
+	if cfg.Trace {
+		args = append(args, "--trace")
+	}
+
+	args = a.AppendArg(args, "--failure-level", cfg.FailureLevel, asciidocext_config.CliDefault.FailureLevel, asciidocext_config.AllowedFailureLevel)
+
+	args = a.AppendArg(args, "--safe-mode", cfg.SafeMode, asciidocext_config.CliDefault.SafeMode, asciidocext_config.AllowedSafeMode)
+
+	return args
+}
+
+func (a *AsciidocConverter) AppendArg(args []string, option, value, defaultValue string, allowedValues map[string]bool) []string {
+	if value != defaultValue {
+		if allowedValues[value] {
+			args = append(args, option, value)
+		} else {
+			a.Cfg.Logger.Errorln("Unsupported asciidoctor value `" + value + "` for option " + option + " was passed in and will be ignored.")
+		}
+	}
+	return args
+}
+
+const asciiDocBinaryName = "asciidoctor"
+
+func HasAsciiDoc() bool {
+	return hexec.InPath(asciiDocBinaryName)
+}
+
+// extractTOC extracts the toc from the given src html.
+// It returns the html without the TOC, and the TOC data
+func (a *AsciidocConverter) extractTOC(src []byte) ([]byte, *tableofcontents.Fragments, error) {
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+	buf.Write(src)
+	node, err := html.Parse(&buf)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+	var (
+		f       func(*html.Node) bool
+		toc     *tableofcontents.Fragments
+		toVisit []*html.Node
+	)
+	f = func(n *html.Node) bool {
+		if n.Type == html.ElementNode && n.Data == "div" && attr(n, "id") == "toc" {
+			toc = parseTOC(n)
+			if !a.Cfg.MarkupConfig().AsciidocExt.PreserveTOC {
+				n.Parent.RemoveChild(n)
+			}
+			return true
+		}
+		if n.FirstChild != nil {
+			toVisit = append(toVisit, n.FirstChild)
+		}
+		if n.NextSibling != nil && f(n.NextSibling) {
+			return true
+		}
+		for len(toVisit) > 0 {
+			nv := toVisit[0]
+			toVisit = toVisit[1:]
+			if f(nv) {
+				return true
+			}
+		}
+		return false
+	}
+	f(node)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+	buf.Reset()
+	err = html.Render(&buf, node)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+	// ltrim <html><head></head><body> and rtrim </body></html> which are added by html.Render
+	res := buf.Bytes()[25:]
+	res = res[:len(res)-14]
+	return res, toc, nil
+}
+
+// parseTOC returns a TOC root from the given toc Node
+func parseTOC(doc *html.Node) *tableofcontents.Fragments {
+	var (
+		toc tableofcontents.Builder
+		f   func(*html.Node, int, int)
+	)
+	f = func(n *html.Node, row, level int) {
+		if n.Type == html.ElementNode {
+			switch n.Data {
+			case "ul":
+				if level == 0 {
+					row++
+				}
+				level++
+				f(n.FirstChild, row, level)
+			case "li":
+				for c := n.FirstChild; c != nil; c = c.NextSibling {
+					if c.Type != html.ElementNode || c.Data != "a" {
+						continue
+					}
+					href := attr(c, "href")[1:]
+					toc.AddAt(&tableofcontents.Heading{
+						Title: nodeContent(c),
+						ID:    href,
+					}, row, level)
+				}
+				f(n.FirstChild, row, level)
+			}
+		}
+		if n.NextSibling != nil {
+			f(n.NextSibling, row, level)
+		}
+	}
+	f(doc.FirstChild, -1, 0)
+	return toc.Build()
+}
+
+func attr(node *html.Node, key string) string {
+	for _, a := range node.Attr {
+		if a.Key == key {
+			return a.Val
+		}
+	}
+	return ""
+}
+
+func nodeContent(node *html.Node) string {
+	var buf bytes.Buffer
+	for c := node.FirstChild; c != nil; c = c.NextSibling {
+		html.Render(&buf, c)
+	}
+	return buf.String()
+}
diff --git a/markup/converter/converter.go b/markup/converter/converter.go
index 544d4841a..7c4898592 100644
--- a/markup/converter/converter.go
+++ b/markup/converter/converter.go
@@ -30,15 +30,17 @@ import (
 
 // ProviderConfig configures a new Provider.
 type ProviderConfig struct {
-	MarkupConfig markup_config.Config
-
-	Cfg       config.Provider // Site config
+	Conf      config.AllProvider // Site config
 	ContentFs afero.Fs
 	Logger    loggers.Logger
 	Exec      *hexec.Exec
 	highlight.Highlighter
 }
 
+func (p ProviderConfig) MarkupConfig() markup_config.Config {
+	return p.Conf.GetConfigSection("markup").(markup_config.Config)
+}
+
 // ProviderProvider creates converter providers.
 type ProviderProvider interface {
 	New(cfg ProviderConfig) (Provider, error)
diff --git a/markup/converter/hooks/hooks.go b/markup/converter/hooks/hooks.go
index 55d7c1127..5c7b9692d 100644
--- a/markup/converter/hooks/hooks.go
+++ b/markup/converter/hooks/hooks.go
@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@ type AttributesProvider interface {
 	Attributes() map[string]any
 }
 
+// LinkContext is the context passed to a link render hook.
 type LinkContext interface {
 	// The Page being rendered.
 	Page() any
@@ -48,6 +49,7 @@ type LinkContext interface {
 	PlainText() string
 }
 
+// ImageLinkContext is the context passed to a image link render hook.
 type ImageLinkContext interface {
 	LinkContext
 
diff --git a/markup/goldmark/convert.go b/markup/goldmark/convert.go
index efcfb7142..20bbfc210 100644
--- a/markup/goldmark/convert.go
+++ b/markup/goldmark/convert.go
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ func (p provide) New(cfg converter.ProviderConfig) (converter.Provider, error) {
 			cfg: cfg,
 			md:  md,
 			sanitizeAnchorName: func(s string) string {
-				return sanitizeAnchorNameString(s, cfg.MarkupConfig.Goldmark.Parser.AutoHeadingIDType)
+				return sanitizeAnchorNameString(s, cfg.MarkupConfig().Goldmark.Parser.AutoHeadingIDType)
 			},
 		}, nil
 	}), nil
@@ -75,8 +75,8 @@ func (c *goldmarkConverter) SanitizeAnchorName(s string) string {
 }
 
 func newMarkdown(pcfg converter.ProviderConfig) goldmark.Markdown {
-	mcfg := pcfg.MarkupConfig
-	cfg := pcfg.MarkupConfig.Goldmark
+	mcfg := pcfg.MarkupConfig()
+	cfg := mcfg.Goldmark
 	var rendererOptions []renderer.Option
 
 	if cfg.Renderer.HardWraps {
@@ -265,7 +265,7 @@ func (c *goldmarkConverter) Supports(feature identity.Identity) bool {
 }
 
 func (c *goldmarkConverter) newParserContext(rctx converter.RenderContext) *parserContext {
-	ctx := parser.NewContext(parser.WithIDs(newIDFactory(c.cfg.MarkupConfig.Goldmark.Parser.AutoHeadingIDType)))
+	ctx := parser.NewContext(parser.WithIDs(newIDFactory(c.cfg.MarkupConfig().Goldmark.Parser.AutoHeadingIDType)))
 	ctx.Set(tocEnableKey, rctx.RenderTOC)
 	return &parserContext{
 		Context: ctx,
diff --git a/markup/goldmark/convert_test.go b/markup/goldmark/convert_test.go
index e92c651fc..05279cd2c 100644
--- a/markup/goldmark/convert_test.go
+++ b/markup/goldmark/convert_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,37 +11,52 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package goldmark
+package goldmark_test
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
+	"github.com/pelletier/go-toml/v2"
 	"github.com/spf13/cast"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter/hooks"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/goldmark/goldmark_config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/goldmark"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/highlight"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/markup_config"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
-func convert(c *qt.C, mconf markup_config.Config, content string) converter.ResultRender {
-	p, err := Provider.New(
-		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			MarkupConfig: mconf,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
-		},
+var cfgStrHighlichgtNoClasses = `
+[markup]
+[markup.highlight]
+noclasses=false
+`
+
+func convert(c *qt.C, conf config.AllProvider, content string) converter.ResultRender {
+	pconf := converter.ProviderConfig{
+		Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+		Conf:   conf,
+	}
+
+	p, err := goldmark.Provider.New(
+		pconf,
 	)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
+	mconf := pconf.MarkupConfig()
+
 	h := highlight.New(mconf.Highlight)
 
 	getRenderer := func(t hooks.RendererType, id any) any {
@@ -140,11 +155,17 @@ description
 
 	// Code fences
 	content = strings.Replace(content, "§§§", "```", -1)
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.Highlight.NoClasses = false
-	mconf.Goldmark.Renderer.Unsafe = true
 
-	b := convert(c, mconf, content)
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.highlight]
+noClasses = false
+[markup.goldmark.renderer]
+unsafe = true
+
+`)
+
+	b := convert(c, testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg), content)
 	got := string(b.Bytes())
 
 	fmt.Println(got)
@@ -193,9 +214,17 @@ func TestConvertAutoIDAsciiOnly(t *testing.T) {
 	content := `
 ## God is Good: 神真美好
 `
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.Goldmark.Parser.AutoHeadingIDType = goldmark_config.AutoHeadingIDTypeGitHubAscii
-	b := convert(c, mconf, content)
+
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.goldmark]
+[markup.goldmark.parser]
+autoHeadingIDType = 'github-ascii'
+
+`)
+
+	b := convert(c, testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg), content)
+
 	got := string(b.Bytes())
 
 	c.Assert(got, qt.Contains, "<h2 id=\"god-is-good-\">")
@@ -208,9 +237,16 @@ func TestConvertAutoIDBlackfriday(t *testing.T) {
 ## Let's try this, shall we?
 
 `
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.Goldmark.Parser.AutoHeadingIDType = goldmark_config.AutoHeadingIDTypeBlackfriday
-	b := convert(c, mconf, content)
+
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.goldmark]
+[markup.goldmark.parser]
+autoHeadingIDType = 'blackfriday'
+`)
+
+	b := convert(c, testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg), content)
+
 	got := string(b.Bytes())
 
 	c.Assert(got, qt.Contains, "<h2 id=\"let-s-try-this-shall-we\">")
@@ -356,7 +392,13 @@ func TestConvertAttributes(t *testing.T) {
 			if test.withConfig != nil {
 				test.withConfig(&mconf)
 			}
-			b := convert(c, mconf, test.input)
+			data, err := toml.Marshal(mconf)
+			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+			m := maps.Params{
+				"markup": config.FromTOMLConfigString(string(data)).Get(""),
+			}
+			conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, config.NewFrom(m))
+			b := convert(c, conf, test.input)
 			got := string(b.Bytes())
 
 			for _, s := range cast.ToStringSlice(test.expect) {
@@ -378,7 +420,7 @@ func TestConvertIssues(t *testing.T) {
 </custom-element>
 `
 
-		b := convert(c, mconf, input)
+		b := convert(c, unsafeConf(), input)
 		got := string(b.Bytes())
 
 		c.Assert(got, qt.Contains, "<custom-element>\n    <div>This will be \"slotted\" into the custom element.</div>\n</custom-element>\n")
@@ -395,18 +437,18 @@ LINE4
 LINE5
 `
 
-	convertForConfig := func(c *qt.C, conf highlight.Config, code, language string) string {
-		mconf := markup_config.Default
-		mconf.Highlight = conf
-
-		p, err := Provider.New(
-			converter.ProviderConfig{
-				MarkupConfig: mconf,
-				Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
-			},
+	convertForConfig := func(c *qt.C, confStr, code, language string) string {
+		cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(confStr)
+		conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+		pcfg := converter.ProviderConfig{
+			Conf:   conf,
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+		}
+		p, err := goldmark.Provider.New(
+			pcfg,
 		)
 
-		h := highlight.New(conf)
+		h := highlight.New(pcfg.MarkupConfig().Highlight)
 
 		getRenderer := func(t hooks.RendererType, id any) any {
 			if t == hooks.CodeBlockRendererType {
@@ -427,75 +469,92 @@ LINE5
 	}
 
 	c.Run("Basic", func(c *qt.C) {
-		cfg := highlight.DefaultConfig
-		cfg.NoClasses = false
+		confStr := `
+[markup]
+[markup.highlight]
+noclasses=false
+`
 
-		result := convertForConfig(c, cfg, `echo "Hugo Rocks!"`, "bash")
+		result := convertForConfig(c, confStr, `echo "Hugo Rocks!"`, "bash")
 		// TODO(bep) there is a whitespace mismatch (\n) between this and the highlight template func.
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Equals, "<div class=\"highlight\"><pre tabindex=\"0\" class=\"chroma\"><code class=\"language-bash\" data-lang=\"bash\"><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"cl\"><span class=\"nb\">echo</span> <span class=\"s2\">&#34;Hugo Rocks!&#34;</span>\n</span></span></code></pre></div>")
-		result = convertForConfig(c, cfg, `echo "Hugo Rocks!"`, "unknown")
+		result = convertForConfig(c, confStr, `echo "Hugo Rocks!"`, "unknown")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Equals, "<pre tabindex=\"0\"><code class=\"language-unknown\" data-lang=\"unknown\">echo &#34;Hugo Rocks!&#34;\n</code></pre>")
 	})
 
 	c.Run("Highlight lines, default config", func(c *qt.C) {
-		cfg := highlight.DefaultConfig
-		cfg.NoClasses = false
 
-		result := convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, `bash {linenos=table,hl_lines=[2 "4-5"],linenostart=3}`)
+		result := convertForConfig(c, cfgStrHighlichgtNoClasses, lines, `bash {linenos=table,hl_lines=[2 "4-5"],linenostart=3}`)
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<div class=\"highlight\"><div class=\"chroma\">\n<table class=\"lntable\"><tr><td class=\"lntd\">\n<pre tabindex=\"0\" class=\"chroma\"><code><span class")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<span class=\"hl\"><span class=\"lnt\">4")
 
-		result = convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "bash {linenos=inline,hl_lines=[2]}")
+		result = convertForConfig(c, cfgStrHighlichgtNoClasses, lines, "bash {linenos=inline,hl_lines=[2]}")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<span class=\"ln\">2</span><span class=\"cl\">LINE2\n</span></span>")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Not(qt.Contains), "<table")
 
-		result = convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "bash {linenos=true,hl_lines=[2]}")
+		result = convertForConfig(c, cfgStrHighlichgtNoClasses, lines, "bash {linenos=true,hl_lines=[2]}")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<table")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<span class=\"hl\"><span class=\"lnt\">2\n</span>")
 	})
 
 	c.Run("Highlight lines, linenumbers default on", func(c *qt.C) {
-		cfg := highlight.DefaultConfig
-		cfg.NoClasses = false
-		cfg.LineNos = true
+		confStr := `
+[markup]
+[markup.highlight]
+noclasses=false
+linenos=true
+`
 
-		result := convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "bash")
+		result := convertForConfig(c, confStr, lines, "bash")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<span class=\"lnt\">2\n</span>")
 
-		result = convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "bash {linenos=false,hl_lines=[2]}")
+		result = convertForConfig(c, confStr, lines, "bash {linenos=false,hl_lines=[2]}")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Not(qt.Contains), "class=\"lnt\"")
 	})
 
 	c.Run("Highlight lines, linenumbers default on, linenumbers in table default off", func(c *qt.C) {
-		cfg := highlight.DefaultConfig
-		cfg.NoClasses = false
-		cfg.LineNos = true
-		cfg.LineNumbersInTable = false
+		confStr := `
+[markup]
+[markup.highlight]
+noClasses = false
+lineNos = true
+lineNumbersInTable = false
+`
 
-		result := convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "bash")
+		result := convertForConfig(c, confStr, lines, "bash")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<span class=\"ln\">2</span><span class=\"cl\">LINE2\n</span>")
-		result = convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "bash {linenos=table}")
+		result = convertForConfig(c, confStr, lines, "bash {linenos=table}")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<span class=\"lnt\">1\n</span>")
 	})
 
 	c.Run("No language", func(c *qt.C) {
+		confStr := `
+[markup]
+[markup.highlight]
+noClasses = false
+lineNos = true
+lineNumbersInTable = false
+`
 		cfg := highlight.DefaultConfig
 		cfg.NoClasses = false
 		cfg.LineNos = true
 		cfg.LineNumbersInTable = false
 
-		result := convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "")
+		result := convertForConfig(c, confStr, lines, "")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<pre tabindex=\"0\"><code>LINE1\n")
 	})
 
 	c.Run("No language, guess syntax", func(c *qt.C) {
-		cfg := highlight.DefaultConfig
-		cfg.NoClasses = false
-		cfg.GuessSyntax = true
-		cfg.LineNos = true
-		cfg.LineNumbersInTable = false
+		confStr := `
+[markup]
+[markup.highlight]
+noClasses = false
+lineNos = true
+lineNumbersInTable = false
+guessSyntax = true
+`
 
-		result := convertForConfig(c, cfg, lines, "")
+		result := convertForConfig(c, confStr, lines, "")
 		c.Assert(result, qt.Contains, "<span class=\"ln\">2</span><span class=\"cl\">LINE2\n</span></span>")
 	})
 }
@@ -506,11 +565,41 @@ func TestTypographerConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	content := `
 A "quote" and 'another quote' and a "quote with a 'nested' quote" and a 'quote with a "nested" quote' and an ellipsis...
 `
-	mconf := markup_config.Default
-	mconf.Goldmark.Extensions.Typographer.LeftDoubleQuote = "&laquo;"
-	mconf.Goldmark.Extensions.Typographer.RightDoubleQuote = "&raquo;"
-	b := convert(c, mconf, content)
+
+	confStr := `
+[markup]
+[markup.goldmark]
+[markup.goldmark.extensions]
+[markup.goldmark.extensions.typographer]
+leftDoubleQuote = "&laquo;"
+rightDoubleQuote = "&raquo;"
+`
+
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(confStr)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+
+	b := convert(c, conf, content)
 	got := string(b.Bytes())
 
 	c.Assert(got, qt.Contains, "<p>A &laquo;quote&raquo; and &lsquo;another quote&rsquo; and a &laquo;quote with a &rsquo;nested&rsquo; quote&raquo; and a &lsquo;quote with a &laquo;nested&raquo; quote&rsquo; and an ellipsis&hellip;</p>\n")
 }
+
+func unsafeConf() config.AllProvider {
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.goldmark.renderer]
+unsafe = true
+`)
+	return testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+
+}
+
+func safeConf() config.AllProvider {
+	cfg := config.FromTOMLConfigString(`
+[markup]
+[markup.goldmark.renderer]
+unsafe = false
+`)
+	return testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+
+}
diff --git a/markup/goldmark/toc_test.go b/markup/goldmark/toc_test.go
index 947f58a36..78811cfb4 100644
--- a/markup/goldmark/toc_test.go
+++ b/markup/goldmark/toc_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,15 +11,15 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-// Package goldmark converts Markdown to HTML using Goldmark.
-package goldmark
+package goldmark_test
 
 import (
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter/hooks"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/markup_config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/goldmark"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 
@@ -53,10 +53,10 @@ And then some.
 #### First H4
 
 `
-	p, err := Provider.New(
+	p, err := goldmark.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			MarkupConfig: markup_config.Default,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, nil),
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
@@ -83,23 +83,15 @@ And then some.
 func TestEscapeToc(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	defaultConfig := markup_config.Default
-
-	safeConfig := defaultConfig
-	unsafeConfig := defaultConfig
-
-	safeConfig.Goldmark.Renderer.Unsafe = false
-	unsafeConfig.Goldmark.Renderer.Unsafe = true
-
-	safeP, _ := Provider.New(
+	safeP, _ := goldmark.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			MarkupConfig: safeConfig,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   safeConf(),
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		})
-	unsafeP, _ := Provider.New(
+	unsafeP, _ := goldmark.Provider.New(
 		converter.ProviderConfig{
-			MarkupConfig: unsafeConfig,
-			Logger:       loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
+			Conf:   unsafeConf(),
+			Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
 		})
 	safeConv, _ := safeP.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
 	unsafeConv, _ := unsafeP.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
diff --git a/markup/highlight/config.go b/markup/highlight/config.go
index b1f6d4603..ca065fd2d 100644
--- a/markup/highlight/config.go
+++ b/markup/highlight/config.go
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ type Config struct {
 	GuessSyntax bool
 }
 
-func (cfg Config) ToHTMLOptions() []html.Option {
+func (cfg Config) toHTMLOptions() []html.Option {
 	var lineAnchors string
 	if cfg.LineAnchors != "" {
 		lineAnchors = cfg.LineAnchors + "-"
diff --git a/markup/highlight/highlight.go b/markup/highlight/highlight.go
index 410beb740..cb0d578de 100644
--- a/markup/highlight/highlight.go
+++ b/markup/highlight/highlight.go
@@ -148,10 +148,12 @@ func (h chromaHighlighter) IsDefaultCodeBlockRenderer() bool {
 
 var id = identity.NewPathIdentity("chroma", "highlight")
 
+// GetIdentify is for internal use.
 func (h chromaHighlighter) GetIdentity() identity.Identity {
 	return id
 }
 
+// HightlightResult holds the result of an highlighting operation.
 type HightlightResult struct {
 	innerLow    int
 	innerHigh   int
@@ -211,7 +213,7 @@ func highlight(fw hugio.FlexiWriter, code, lang string, attributes []attributes.
 		writeDivStart(w, attributes)
 	}
 
-	options := cfg.ToHTMLOptions()
+	options := cfg.toHTMLOptions()
 	var wrapper html.PreWrapper
 
 	if cfg.Hl_inline {
diff --git a/markup/markup.go b/markup/markup.go
index aefa50867..ebd86f38f 100644
--- a/markup/markup.go
+++ b/markup/markup.go
@@ -35,17 +35,13 @@ import (
 func NewConverterProvider(cfg converter.ProviderConfig) (ConverterProvider, error) {
 	converters := make(map[string]converter.Provider)
 
-	markupConfig, err := markup_config.Decode(cfg.Cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
+	mcfg := cfg.MarkupConfig()
 
 	if cfg.Highlighter == nil {
-		cfg.Highlighter = highlight.New(markupConfig.Highlight)
+		cfg.Highlighter = highlight.New(mcfg.Highlight)
 	}
 
-	cfg.MarkupConfig = markupConfig
-	defaultHandler := cfg.MarkupConfig.DefaultMarkdownHandler
+	defaultHandler := mcfg.DefaultMarkdownHandler
 	var defaultFound bool
 
 	add := func(p converter.ProviderProvider, aliases ...string) error {
@@ -123,7 +119,7 @@ func (r *converterRegistry) GetHighlighter() highlight.Highlighter {
 }
 
 func (r *converterRegistry) GetMarkupConfig() markup_config.Config {
-	return r.config.MarkupConfig
+	return r.config.MarkupConfig()
 }
 
 func addConverter(m map[string]converter.Provider, c converter.Provider, aliases ...string) {
diff --git a/markup/markup_config/config.go b/markup/markup_config/config.go
index 60446b9bc..0793669a7 100644
--- a/markup/markup_config/config.go
+++ b/markup/markup_config/config.go
@@ -28,14 +28,18 @@ import (
 type Config struct {
 	// Default markdown handler for md/markdown extensions.
 	// Default is "goldmark".
-	// Before Hugo 0.60 this was "blackfriday".
 	DefaultMarkdownHandler string
 
-	Highlight       highlight.Config
+	// The configuration used by code highlighters.
+	Highlight highlight.Config
+
+	// Table of contents configuration
 	TableOfContents tableofcontents.Config
 
-	// Content renderers
-	Goldmark    goldmark_config.Config
+	// Configuration for the Goldmark markdown engine.
+	Goldmark goldmark_config.Config
+
+	// Configuration for the Asciidoc external markdown engine.
 	AsciidocExt asciidocext_config.Config
 }
 
@@ -46,6 +50,8 @@ func Decode(cfg config.Provider) (conf Config, err error) {
 	if m == nil {
 		return
 	}
+	m = maps.CleanConfigStringMap(m)
+
 	normalizeConfig(m)
 
 	err = mapstructure.WeakDecode(m, &conf)
diff --git a/markup/markup_test.go b/markup/markup_test.go
index 5ec27c45c..5cf08758d 100644
--- a/markup/markup_test.go
+++ b/markup/markup_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,20 +11,21 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package markup
+package markup_test
 
 import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
 )
 
 func TestConverterRegistry(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	r, err := NewConverterProvider(converter.ProviderConfig{Cfg: config.New()})
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, nil)
+	r, err := markup.NewConverterProvider(converter.ProviderConfig{Conf: conf})
 
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert("goldmark", qt.Equals, r.GetMarkupConfig().DefaultMarkdownHandler)
diff --git a/markup/org/convert_test.go b/markup/org/convert_test.go
index e3676fc34..08841b2d7 100644
--- a/markup/org/convert_test.go
+++ b/markup/org/convert_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,25 +11,26 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package org
+package org_test
 
 import (
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/org"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
 func TestConvert(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	p, err := Provider.New(converter.ProviderConfig{
+	p, err := org.Provider.New(converter.ProviderConfig{
 		Logger: loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
-		Cfg:    config.New(),
+		Conf:   testconfig.GetTestConfig(afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil),
 	})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	conv, err := p.New(converter.DocumentContext{})
diff --git a/markup/pandoc/convert.go b/markup/pandoc/convert.go
index 386a9ff26..eaa9bfb6a 100644
--- a/markup/pandoc/convert.go
+++ b/markup/pandoc/convert.go
@@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/internal"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/internal"
 )
 
 // Provider is the package entry point.
diff --git a/markup/rst/convert.go b/markup/rst/convert.go
index 59ce38408..b7aa5a2ce 100644
--- a/markup/rst/convert.go
+++ b/markup/rst/convert.go
@@ -22,9 +22,9 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/internal"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/converter"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/internal"
 )
 
 // Provider is the package entry point.
diff --git a/markup/tableofcontents/tableofcontents.go b/markup/tableofcontents/tableofcontents.go
index bd0aaa801..774b5c6cd 100644
--- a/markup/tableofcontents/tableofcontents.go
+++ b/markup/tableofcontents/tableofcontents.go
@@ -237,6 +237,7 @@ var DefaultConfig = Config{
 type Config struct {
 	// Heading start level to include in the table of contents, starting
 	// at h1 (inclusive).
+	// <docsmeta>{ "identifiers": ["h1"] }</docsmeta>
 	StartLevel int
 
 	// Heading end level, inclusive, to include in the table of contents.
diff --git a/media/builtin.go b/media/builtin.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..64b5163b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/media/builtin.go
@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+package media
+
+type BuiltinTypes struct {
+	CalendarType   Type
+	CSSType        Type
+	SCSSType       Type
+	SASSType       Type
+	CSVType        Type
+	HTMLType       Type
+	JavascriptType Type
+	TypeScriptType Type
+	TSXType        Type
+	JSXType        Type
+
+	JSONType           Type
+	WebAppManifestType Type
+	RSSType            Type
+	XMLType            Type
+	SVGType            Type
+	TextType           Type
+	TOMLType           Type
+	YAMLType           Type
+
+	// Common image types
+	PNGType  Type
+	JPEGType Type
+	GIFType  Type
+	TIFFType Type
+	BMPType  Type
+	WEBPType Type
+
+	// Common font types
+	TrueTypeFontType Type
+	OpenTypeFontType Type
+
+	// Common document types
+	PDFType      Type
+	MarkdownType Type
+
+	// Common video types
+	AVIType  Type
+	MPEGType Type
+	MP4Type  Type
+	OGGType  Type
+	WEBMType Type
+	GPPType  Type
+
+	// wasm
+	WasmType Type
+
+	OctetType Type
+}
+
+var (
+	Builtin = BuiltinTypes{
+		CalendarType:   Type{Type: "text/calendar"},
+		CSSType:        Type{Type: "text/css"},
+		SCSSType:       Type{Type: "text/x-scss"},
+		SASSType:       Type{Type: "text/x-sass"},
+		CSVType:        Type{Type: "text/csv"},
+		HTMLType:       Type{Type: "text/html"},
+		JavascriptType: Type{Type: "text/javascript"},
+		TypeScriptType: Type{Type: "text/typescript"},
+		TSXType:        Type{Type: "text/tsx"},
+		JSXType:        Type{Type: "text/jsx"},
+
+		JSONType:           Type{Type: "application/json"},
+		WebAppManifestType: Type{Type: "application/manifest+json"},
+		RSSType:            Type{Type: "application/rss+xml"},
+		XMLType:            Type{Type: "application/xml"},
+		SVGType:            Type{Type: "image/svg+xml"},
+		TextType:           Type{Type: "text/plain"},
+		TOMLType:           Type{Type: "application/toml"},
+		YAMLType:           Type{Type: "application/yaml"},
+
+		// Common image types
+		PNGType:  Type{Type: "image/png"},
+		JPEGType: Type{Type: "image/jpeg"},
+		GIFType:  Type{Type: "image/gif"},
+		TIFFType: Type{Type: "image/tiff"},
+		BMPType:  Type{Type: "image/bmp"},
+		WEBPType: Type{Type: "image/webp"},
+
+		// Common font types
+		TrueTypeFontType: Type{Type: "font/ttf"},
+		OpenTypeFontType: Type{Type: "font/otf"},
+
+		// Common document types
+		PDFType:      Type{Type: "application/pdf"},
+		MarkdownType: Type{Type: "text/markdown"},
+
+		// Common video types
+		AVIType:  Type{Type: "video/x-msvideo"},
+		MPEGType: Type{Type: "video/mpeg"},
+		MP4Type:  Type{Type: "video/mp4"},
+		OGGType:  Type{Type: "video/ogg"},
+		WEBMType: Type{Type: "video/webm"},
+		GPPType:  Type{Type: "video/3gpp"},
+
+		// Web assembly.
+		WasmType: Type{Type: "application/wasm"},
+
+		OctetType: Type{Type: "application/octet-stream"},
+	}
+)
+
+var defaultMediaTypesConfig = map[string]any{
+	"text/calendar":   map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"ics"}},
+	"text/css":        map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"css"}},
+	"text/x-scss":     map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"scss"}},
+	"text/x-sass":     map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"sass"}},
+	"text/csv":        map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"csv"}},
+	"text/html":       map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"html"}},
+	"text/javascript": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"js", "jsm", "mjs"}},
+	"text/typescript": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"ts"}},
+	"text/tsx":        map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"tsx"}},
+	"text/jsx":        map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"jsx"}},
+
+	"application/json":          map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"json"}},
+	"application/manifest+json": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"webmanifest"}},
+	"application/rss+xml":       map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"xml", "rss"}},
+	"application/xml":           map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"xml"}},
+	"image/svg+xml":             map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"svg"}},
+	"text/plain":                map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"txt"}},
+	"application/toml":          map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"toml"}},
+	"application/yaml":          map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"yaml", "yml"}},
+
+	// Common image types
+	"image/png":  map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"png"}},
+	"image/jpeg": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"jpg", "jpeg", "jpe", "jif", "jfif"}},
+	"image/gif":  map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"gif"}},
+	"image/tiff": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"tif", "tiff"}},
+	"image/bmp":  map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"bmp"}},
+	"image/webp": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"webp"}},
+
+	// Common font types
+	"font/ttf": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"ttf"}},
+	"font/otf": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"otf"}},
+
+	// Common document types
+	"application/pdf": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"pdf"}},
+	"text/markdown":   map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"md", "markdown"}},
+
+	// Common video types
+	"video/x-msvideo": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"avi"}},
+	"video/mpeg":      map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"mpg", "mpeg"}},
+	"video/mp4":       map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"mp4"}},
+	"video/ogg":       map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"ogv"}},
+	"video/webm":      map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"webm"}},
+	"video/3gpp":      map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"3gpp", "3gp"}},
+
+	// wasm
+	"application/wasm": map[string]any{"suffixes": []string{"wasm"}},
+
+	"application/octet-stream": map[string]any{},
+}
+
+func init() {
+	// Apply delimiter to all.
+	for _, m := range defaultMediaTypesConfig {
+		m.(map[string]any)["delimiter"] = "."
+	}
+}
diff --git a/media/config.go b/media/config.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..72583f267
--- /dev/null
+++ b/media/config.go
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package media
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"reflect"
+	"sort"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
+	"github.com/spf13/cast"
+)
+
+// DefaultTypes is the default media types supported by Hugo.
+var DefaultTypes Types
+
+func init() {
+
+	ns, err := DecodeTypes(nil)
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	DefaultTypes = ns.Config
+
+	// Initialize the Builtin types with values from DefaultTypes.
+	v := reflect.ValueOf(&Builtin).Elem()
+	for i := 0; i < v.NumField(); i++ {
+		f := v.Field(i)
+		builtinType := f.Interface().(Type)
+		defaultType, found := DefaultTypes.GetByType(builtinType.Type)
+		if !found {
+			panic(errors.New("missing default type for builtin type: " + builtinType.Type))
+		}
+		f.Set(reflect.ValueOf(defaultType))
+	}
+}
+
+// Hold the configuration for a given media type.
+type MediaTypeConfig struct {
+	// The file suffixes used for this media type.
+	Suffixes []string
+	// Delimiter used before suffix.
+	Delimiter string
+}
+
+// DecodeTypes decodes the given map of media types.
+func DecodeTypes(in map[string]any) (*config.ConfigNamespace[map[string]MediaTypeConfig, Types], error) {
+
+	buildConfig := func(v any) (Types, any, error) {
+		m, err := maps.ToStringMapE(v)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, nil, err
+		}
+		if m == nil {
+			m = map[string]any{}
+		}
+		m = maps.CleanConfigStringMap(m)
+		// Merge with defaults.
+		maps.MergeShallow(m, defaultMediaTypesConfig)
+
+		var types Types
+
+		for k, v := range m {
+			mediaType, err := FromString(k)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, nil, err
+			}
+			if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(v, &mediaType); err != nil {
+				return nil, nil, err
+			}
+			mm := maps.ToStringMap(v)
+			suffixes, found := maps.LookupEqualFold(mm, "suffixes")
+			if found {
+				mediaType.SuffixesCSV = strings.TrimSpace(strings.ToLower(strings.Join(cast.ToStringSlice(suffixes), ",")))
+			}
+			if mediaType.SuffixesCSV != "" && mediaType.Delimiter == "" {
+				mediaType.Delimiter = DefaultDelimiter
+			}
+			InitMediaType(&mediaType)
+			types = append(types, mediaType)
+		}
+
+		sort.Sort(types)
+
+		return types, m, nil
+	}
+
+	ns, err := config.DecodeNamespace[map[string]MediaTypeConfig](in, buildConfig)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to decode media types: %w", err)
+	}
+	return ns, nil
+
+}
+
+func suffixIsRemoved() error {
+	return errors.New(`MediaType.Suffix is removed. Before Hugo 0.44 this was used both to set a custom file suffix and as way
+to augment the mediatype definition (what you see after the "+", e.g. "image/svg+xml").
+
+This had its limitations. For one, it was only possible with one file extension per MIME type.
+
+Now you can specify multiple file suffixes using "suffixes", but you need to specify the full MIME type
+identifier:
+
+[mediaTypes]
+[mediaTypes."image/svg+xml"]
+suffixes = ["svg", "abc" ]
+
+In most cases, it will be enough to just change:
+
+[mediaTypes]
+[mediaTypes."my/custom-mediatype"]
+suffix = "txt"
+
+To:
+
+[mediaTypes]
+[mediaTypes."my/custom-mediatype"]
+suffixes = ["txt"]
+
+Note that you can still get the Media Type's suffix from a template: {{ $mediaType.Suffix }}. But this will now map to the MIME type filename.
+`)
+}
diff --git a/media/config_test.go b/media/config_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..75ede75bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/media/config_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package media
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"testing"
+
+	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+)
+
+func TestDecodeTypes(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
+	tests := []struct {
+		name        string
+		m           map[string]any
+		shouldError bool
+		assert      func(t *testing.T, name string, tt Types)
+	}{
+		{
+			"Redefine JSON",
+			map[string]any{
+				"application/json": map[string]any{
+					"suffixes": []string{"jasn"},
+				},
+			},
+
+			false,
+			func(t *testing.T, name string, tt Types) {
+				for _, ttt := range tt {
+					if _, ok := DefaultTypes.GetByType(ttt.Type); !ok {
+						fmt.Println(ttt.Type, "not found in default types")
+					}
+				}
+
+				c.Assert(len(tt), qt.Equals, len(DefaultTypes))
+				json, si, found := tt.GetBySuffix("jasn")
+				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
+				c.Assert(json.String(), qt.Equals, "application/json")
+				c.Assert(si.FullSuffix, qt.Equals, ".jasn")
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"MIME suffix in key, multiple file suffixes, custom delimiter",
+			map[string]any{
+				"application/hugo+hg": map[string]any{
+					"suffixes":  []string{"hg1", "hG2"},
+					"Delimiter": "_",
+				},
+			},
+			false,
+			func(t *testing.T, name string, tt Types) {
+				c.Assert(len(tt), qt.Equals, len(DefaultTypes)+1)
+				hg, si, found := tt.GetBySuffix("hg2")
+				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
+				c.Assert(hg.FirstSuffix.Suffix, qt.Equals, "hg1")
+				c.Assert(hg.FirstSuffix.FullSuffix, qt.Equals, "_hg1")
+				c.Assert(si.Suffix, qt.Equals, "hg2")
+				c.Assert(si.FullSuffix, qt.Equals, "_hg2")
+				c.Assert(hg.String(), qt.Equals, "application/hugo+hg")
+
+				_, found = tt.GetByType("application/hugo+hg")
+				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"Add custom media type",
+			map[string]any{
+				"text/hugo+hgo": map[string]any{
+					"Suffixes": []string{"hgo2"},
+				},
+			},
+			false,
+			func(t *testing.T, name string, tp Types) {
+				c.Assert(len(tp), qt.Equals, len(DefaultTypes)+1)
+				// Make sure we have not broken the default config.
+
+				_, _, found := tp.GetBySuffix("json")
+				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
+
+				hugo, _, found := tp.GetBySuffix("hgo2")
+				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
+				c.Assert(hugo.String(), qt.Equals, "text/hugo+hgo")
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	for _, test := range tests {
+		result, err := DecodeTypes(test.m)
+		if test.shouldError {
+			c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+		} else {
+			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+			test.assert(t, test.name, result.Config)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDefaultTypes(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+	for _, test := range []struct {
+		tp               Type
+		expectedMainType string
+		expectedSubType  string
+		expectedSuffix   string
+		expectedType     string
+		expectedString   string
+	}{
+		{Builtin.CalendarType, "text", "calendar", "ics", "text/calendar", "text/calendar"},
+		{Builtin.CSSType, "text", "css", "css", "text/css", "text/css"},
+		{Builtin.SCSSType, "text", "x-scss", "scss", "text/x-scss", "text/x-scss"},
+		{Builtin.CSVType, "text", "csv", "csv", "text/csv", "text/csv"},
+		{Builtin.HTMLType, "text", "html", "html", "text/html", "text/html"},
+		{Builtin.JavascriptType, "text", "javascript", "js", "text/javascript", "text/javascript"},
+		{Builtin.TypeScriptType, "text", "typescript", "ts", "text/typescript", "text/typescript"},
+		{Builtin.TSXType, "text", "tsx", "tsx", "text/tsx", "text/tsx"},
+		{Builtin.JSXType, "text", "jsx", "jsx", "text/jsx", "text/jsx"},
+		{Builtin.JSONType, "application", "json", "json", "application/json", "application/json"},
+		{Builtin.RSSType, "application", "rss", "xml", "application/rss+xml", "application/rss+xml"},
+		{Builtin.SVGType, "image", "svg", "svg", "image/svg+xml", "image/svg+xml"},
+		{Builtin.TextType, "text", "plain", "txt", "text/plain", "text/plain"},
+		{Builtin.XMLType, "application", "xml", "xml", "application/xml", "application/xml"},
+		{Builtin.TOMLType, "application", "toml", "toml", "application/toml", "application/toml"},
+		{Builtin.YAMLType, "application", "yaml", "yaml", "application/yaml", "application/yaml"},
+		{Builtin.PDFType, "application", "pdf", "pdf", "application/pdf", "application/pdf"},
+		{Builtin.TrueTypeFontType, "font", "ttf", "ttf", "font/ttf", "font/ttf"},
+		{Builtin.OpenTypeFontType, "font", "otf", "otf", "font/otf", "font/otf"},
+	} {
+		c.Assert(test.tp.MainType, qt.Equals, test.expectedMainType)
+		c.Assert(test.tp.SubType, qt.Equals, test.expectedSubType)
+
+		c.Assert(test.tp.Type, qt.Equals, test.expectedType)
+		c.Assert(test.tp.String(), qt.Equals, test.expectedString)
+
+	}
+
+	c.Assert(len(DefaultTypes), qt.Equals, 36)
+}
diff --git a/media/mediaType.go b/media/mediaType.go
index 084f1fb5b..8204fc435 100644
--- a/media/mediaType.go
+++ b/media/mediaType.go
@@ -16,38 +16,36 @@ package media
 
 import (
 	"encoding/json"
-	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"net/http"
-	"sort"
 	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/spf13/cast"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-
-	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 )
 
 var zero Type
 
 const (
-	defaultDelimiter = "."
+	DefaultDelimiter = "."
 )
 
-// Type (also known as MIME type and content type) is a two-part identifier for
+// MediaType (also known as MIME type and content type) is a two-part identifier for
 // file formats and format contents transmitted on the Internet.
 // For Hugo's use case, we use the top-level type name / subtype name + suffix.
 // One example would be application/svg+xml
 // If suffix is not provided, the sub type will be used.
-// See // https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_type
+// <docsmeta>{ "name": "MediaType" }</docsmeta>
 type Type struct {
-	MainType  string `json:"mainType"`  // i.e. text
-	SubType   string `json:"subType"`   // i.e. html
-	Delimiter string `json:"delimiter"` // e.g. "."
+	// The full MIME type string, e.g. "application/rss+xml".
+	Type string `json:"-"`
 
-	// FirstSuffix holds the first suffix defined for this Type.
-	FirstSuffix SuffixInfo `json:"firstSuffix"`
+	// The top-level type name, e.g. "application".
+	MainType string `json:"mainType"`
+	// The subtype name, e.g. "rss".
+	SubType string `json:"subType"`
+	// The delimiter before the suffix, e.g. ".".
+	Delimiter string `json:"delimiter"`
+
+	// FirstSuffix holds the first suffix defined for this MediaType.
+	FirstSuffix SuffixInfo `json:"-"`
 
 	// This is the optional suffix after the "+" in the MIME type,
 	//  e.g. "xml" in "application/rss+xml".
@@ -55,12 +53,16 @@ type Type struct {
 
 	// E.g. "jpg,jpeg"
 	// Stored as a string to make Type comparable.
-	suffixesCSV string
+	// For internal use only.
+	SuffixesCSV string `json:"-"`
 }
 
-// SuffixInfo holds information about a Type's suffix.
+// SuffixInfo holds information about a Media Type's suffix.
 type SuffixInfo struct {
-	Suffix     string `json:"suffix"`
+	// Suffix is the suffix without the delimiter, e.g. "xml".
+	Suffix string `json:"suffix"`
+
+	// FullSuffix is the suffix with the delimiter, e.g. ".xml".
 	FullSuffix string `json:"fullSuffix"`
 }
 
@@ -121,12 +123,21 @@ func FromStringAndExt(t, ext string) (Type, error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return tp, err
 	}
-	tp.suffixesCSV = strings.TrimPrefix(ext, ".")
-	tp.Delimiter = defaultDelimiter
+	tp.SuffixesCSV = strings.TrimPrefix(ext, ".")
+	tp.Delimiter = DefaultDelimiter
 	tp.init()
 	return tp, nil
 }
 
+// MustFromString is like FromString but panics on error.
+func MustFromString(t string) Type {
+	tp, err := FromString(t)
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	return tp
+}
+
 // FromString creates a new Type given a type string on the form MainType/SubType and
 // an optional suffix, e.g. "text/html" or "text/html+html".
 func FromString(t string) (Type, error) {
@@ -146,52 +157,49 @@ func FromString(t string) (Type, error) {
 		suffix = subParts[1]
 	}
 
-	return Type{MainType: mainType, SubType: subType, mimeSuffix: suffix}, nil
-}
-
-// Type returns a string representing the main- and sub-type of a media type, e.g. "text/css".
-// A suffix identifier will be appended after a "+" if set, e.g. "image/svg+xml".
-// Hugo will register a set of default media types.
-// These can be overridden by the user in the configuration,
-// by defining a media type with the same Type.
-func (m Type) Type() string {
-	// Examples are
-	// image/svg+xml
-	// text/css
-	if m.mimeSuffix != "" {
-		return m.MainType + "/" + m.SubType + "+" + m.mimeSuffix
+	var typ string
+	if suffix != "" {
+		typ = mainType + "/" + subType + "+" + suffix
+	} else {
+		typ = mainType + "/" + subType
 	}
-	return m.MainType + "/" + m.SubType
+
+	return Type{Type: typ, MainType: mainType, SubType: subType, mimeSuffix: suffix}, nil
 }
 
 // For internal use.
 func (m Type) String() string {
-	return m.Type()
+	return m.Type
 }
 
 // Suffixes returns all valid file suffixes for this type.
 func (m Type) Suffixes() []string {
-	if m.suffixesCSV == "" {
+	if m.SuffixesCSV == "" {
 		return nil
 	}
 
-	return strings.Split(m.suffixesCSV, ",")
+	return strings.Split(m.SuffixesCSV, ",")
 }
 
 // IsText returns whether this Type is a text format.
 // Note that this may currently return false negatives.
 // TODO(bep) improve
+// For internal use.
 func (m Type) IsText() bool {
 	if m.MainType == "text" {
 		return true
 	}
 	switch m.SubType {
-	case "javascript", "json", "rss", "xml", "svg", TOMLType.SubType, YAMLType.SubType:
+	case "javascript", "json", "rss", "xml", "svg", "toml", "yml", "yaml":
 		return true
 	}
 	return false
 }
 
+func InitMediaType(m *Type) {
+	m.init()
+}
+
 func (m *Type) init() {
 	m.FirstSuffix.FullSuffix = ""
 	m.FirstSuffix.Suffix = ""
@@ -204,13 +212,13 @@ func (m *Type) init() {
 // WithDelimiterAndSuffixes is used in tests.
 func WithDelimiterAndSuffixes(t Type, delimiter, suffixesCSV string) Type {
 	t.Delimiter = delimiter
-	t.suffixesCSV = suffixesCSV
+	t.SuffixesCSV = suffixesCSV
 	t.init()
 	return t
 }
 
 func newMediaType(main, sub string, suffixes []string) Type {
-	t := Type{MainType: main, SubType: sub, suffixesCSV: strings.Join(suffixes, ","), Delimiter: defaultDelimiter}
+	t := Type{MainType: main, SubType: sub, SuffixesCSV: strings.Join(suffixes, ","), Delimiter: DefaultDelimiter}
 	t.init()
 	return t
 }
@@ -222,118 +230,18 @@ func newMediaTypeWithMimeSuffix(main, sub, mimeSuffix string, suffixes []string)
 	return mt
 }
 
-// Definitions from https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/Basics_of_HTTP/MIME_types etc.
-// Note that from Hugo 0.44 we only set Suffix if it is part of the MIME type.
-var (
-	CalendarType   = newMediaType("text", "calendar", []string{"ics"})
-	CSSType        = newMediaType("text", "css", []string{"css"})
-	SCSSType       = newMediaType("text", "x-scss", []string{"scss"})
-	SASSType       = newMediaType("text", "x-sass", []string{"sass"})
-	CSVType        = newMediaType("text", "csv", []string{"csv"})
-	HTMLType       = newMediaType("text", "html", []string{"html"})
-	JavascriptType = newMediaType("text", "javascript", []string{"js", "jsm", "mjs"})
-	TypeScriptType = newMediaType("text", "typescript", []string{"ts"})
-	TSXType        = newMediaType("text", "tsx", []string{"tsx"})
-	JSXType        = newMediaType("text", "jsx", []string{"jsx"})
-
-	JSONType           = newMediaType("application", "json", []string{"json"})
-	WebAppManifestType = newMediaTypeWithMimeSuffix("application", "manifest", "json", []string{"webmanifest"})
-	RSSType            = newMediaTypeWithMimeSuffix("application", "rss", "xml", []string{"xml", "rss"})
-	XMLType            = newMediaType("application", "xml", []string{"xml"})
-	SVGType            = newMediaTypeWithMimeSuffix("image", "svg", "xml", []string{"svg"})
-	TextType           = newMediaType("text", "plain", []string{"txt"})
-	TOMLType           = newMediaType("application", "toml", []string{"toml"})
-	YAMLType           = newMediaType("application", "yaml", []string{"yaml", "yml"})
-
-	// Common image types
-	PNGType  = newMediaType("image", "png", []string{"png"})
-	JPEGType = newMediaType("image", "jpeg", []string{"jpg", "jpeg", "jpe", "jif", "jfif"})
-	GIFType  = newMediaType("image", "gif", []string{"gif"})
-	TIFFType = newMediaType("image", "tiff", []string{"tif", "tiff"})
-	BMPType  = newMediaType("image", "bmp", []string{"bmp"})
-	WEBPType = newMediaType("image", "webp", []string{"webp"})
-
-	// Common font types
-	TrueTypeFontType = newMediaType("font", "ttf", []string{"ttf"})
-	OpenTypeFontType = newMediaType("font", "otf", []string{"otf"})
-
-	// Common document types
-	PDFType      = newMediaType("application", "pdf", []string{"pdf"})
-	MarkdownType = newMediaType("text", "markdown", []string{"md", "markdown"})
-
-	// Common video types
-	AVIType  = newMediaType("video", "x-msvideo", []string{"avi"})
-	MPEGType = newMediaType("video", "mpeg", []string{"mpg", "mpeg"})
-	MP4Type  = newMediaType("video", "mp4", []string{"mp4"})
-	OGGType  = newMediaType("video", "ogg", []string{"ogv"})
-	WEBMType = newMediaType("video", "webm", []string{"webm"})
-	GPPType  = newMediaType("video", "3gpp", []string{"3gpp", "3gp"})
-
-	OctetType = newMediaType("application", "octet-stream", nil)
-)
-
-// DefaultTypes is the default media types supported by Hugo.
-var DefaultTypes = Types{
-	CalendarType,
-	CSSType,
-	CSVType,
-	SCSSType,
-	SASSType,
-	HTMLType,
-	MarkdownType,
-	JavascriptType,
-	TypeScriptType,
-	TSXType,
-	JSXType,
-	JSONType,
-	WebAppManifestType,
-	RSSType,
-	XMLType,
-	SVGType,
-	TextType,
-	OctetType,
-	YAMLType,
-	TOMLType,
-	PNGType,
-	GIFType,
-	BMPType,
-	JPEGType,
-	WEBPType,
-	AVIType,
-	MPEGType,
-	MP4Type,
-	OGGType,
-	WEBMType,
-	GPPType,
-	OpenTypeFontType,
-	TrueTypeFontType,
-	PDFType,
-}
-
-func init() {
-	sort.Sort(DefaultTypes)
-
-	// Sanity check.
-	seen := make(map[Type]bool)
-	for _, t := range DefaultTypes {
-		if seen[t] {
-			panic(fmt.Sprintf("MediaType %s duplicated in list", t))
-		}
-		seen[t] = true
-	}
-}
-
 // Types is a slice of media types.
+// <docsmeta>{ "name": "MediaTypes" }</docsmeta>
 type Types []Type
 
 func (t Types) Len() int           { return len(t) }
 func (t Types) Swap(i, j int)      { t[i], t[j] = t[j], t[i] }
-func (t Types) Less(i, j int) bool { return t[i].Type() < t[j].Type() }
+func (t Types) Less(i, j int) bool { return t[i].Type < t[j].Type }
 
 // GetByType returns a media type for tp.
 func (t Types) GetByType(tp string) (Type, bool) {
 	for _, tt := range t {
-		if strings.EqualFold(tt.Type(), tp) {
+		if strings.EqualFold(tt.Type, tp) {
 			return tt, true
 		}
 	}
@@ -399,8 +307,19 @@ func (t Types) GetBySuffix(suffix string) (tp Type, si SuffixInfo, found bool) {
 	return
 }
 
+func (t Types) IsTextSuffix(suffix string) bool {
+	suffix = strings.ToLower(suffix)
+	for _, tt := range t {
+		if tt.hasSuffix(suffix) {
+			return tt.IsText()
+		}
+	}
+	return false
+
+}
+
 func (m Type) hasSuffix(suffix string) bool {
-	return strings.Contains(","+m.suffixesCSV+",", ","+suffix+",")
+	return strings.Contains(","+m.SuffixesCSV+",", ","+suffix+",")
 }
 
 // GetByMainSubType gets a media type given a main and a sub type e.g. "text" and "plain".
@@ -423,96 +342,6 @@ func (t Types) GetByMainSubType(mainType, subType string) (tp Type, found bool)
 	return
 }
 
-func suffixIsRemoved() error {
-	return errors.New(`MediaType.Suffix is removed. Before Hugo 0.44 this was used both to set a custom file suffix and as way
-to augment the mediatype definition (what you see after the "+", e.g. "image/svg+xml").
-
-This had its limitations. For one, it was only possible with one file extension per MIME type.
-
-Now you can specify multiple file suffixes using "suffixes", but you need to specify the full MIME type
-identifier:
-
-[mediaTypes]
-[mediaTypes."image/svg+xml"]
-suffixes = ["svg", "abc" ]
-
-In most cases, it will be enough to just change:
-
-[mediaTypes]
-[mediaTypes."my/custom-mediatype"]
-suffix = "txt"
-
-To:
-
-[mediaTypes]
-[mediaTypes."my/custom-mediatype"]
-suffixes = ["txt"]
-
-Note that you can still get the Media Type's suffix from a template: {{ $mediaType.Suffix }}. But this will now map to the MIME type filename.
-`)
-}
-
-// DecodeTypes takes a list of media type configurations and merges those,
-// in the order given, with the Hugo defaults as the last resort.
-func DecodeTypes(mms ...map[string]any) (Types, error) {
-	var m Types
-
-	// Maps type string to Type. Type string is the full application/svg+xml.
-	mmm := make(map[string]Type)
-	for _, dt := range DefaultTypes {
-		mmm[dt.Type()] = dt
-	}
-
-	for _, mm := range mms {
-		for k, v := range mm {
-			var mediaType Type
-
-			mediaType, found := mmm[k]
-			if !found {
-				var err error
-				mediaType, err = FromString(k)
-				if err != nil {
-					return m, err
-				}
-			}
-
-			if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(v, &mediaType); err != nil {
-				return m, err
-			}
-
-			vm := maps.ToStringMap(v)
-			maps.PrepareParams(vm)
-			_, delimiterSet := vm["delimiter"]
-			_, suffixSet := vm["suffix"]
-
-			if suffixSet {
-				return Types{}, suffixIsRemoved()
-			}
-
-			if suffixes, found := vm["suffixes"]; found {
-				mediaType.suffixesCSV = strings.TrimSpace(strings.ToLower(strings.Join(cast.ToStringSlice(suffixes), ",")))
-			}
-
-			// The user may set the delimiter as an empty string.
-			if !delimiterSet && mediaType.suffixesCSV != "" {
-				mediaType.Delimiter = defaultDelimiter
-			}
-
-			mediaType.init()
-
-			mmm[k] = mediaType
-
-		}
-	}
-
-	for _, v := range mmm {
-		m = append(m, v)
-	}
-	sort.Sort(m)
-
-	return m, nil
-}
-
 // IsZero reports whether this Type represents a zero value.
 // For internal use.
 func (m Type) IsZero() bool {
@@ -530,8 +359,8 @@ func (m Type) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
 		Suffixes []string `json:"suffixes"`
 	}{
 		Alias:    (Alias)(m),
-		Type:     m.Type(),
+		Type:     m.Type,
 		String:   m.String(),
-		Suffixes: strings.Split(m.suffixesCSV, ","),
+		Suffixes: strings.Split(m.SuffixesCSV, ","),
 	})
 }
diff --git a/media/mediaType_test.go b/media/mediaType_test.go
index 4ddafc7c5..2e3a4a914 100644
--- a/media/mediaType_test.go
+++ b/media/mediaType_test.go
@@ -25,73 +25,32 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
 )
 
-func TestDefaultTypes(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	for _, test := range []struct {
-		tp               Type
-		expectedMainType string
-		expectedSubType  string
-		expectedSuffix   string
-		expectedType     string
-		expectedString   string
-	}{
-		{CalendarType, "text", "calendar", "ics", "text/calendar", "text/calendar"},
-		{CSSType, "text", "css", "css", "text/css", "text/css"},
-		{SCSSType, "text", "x-scss", "scss", "text/x-scss", "text/x-scss"},
-		{CSVType, "text", "csv", "csv", "text/csv", "text/csv"},
-		{HTMLType, "text", "html", "html", "text/html", "text/html"},
-		{JavascriptType, "text", "javascript", "js", "text/javascript", "text/javascript"},
-		{TypeScriptType, "text", "typescript", "ts", "text/typescript", "text/typescript"},
-		{TSXType, "text", "tsx", "tsx", "text/tsx", "text/tsx"},
-		{JSXType, "text", "jsx", "jsx", "text/jsx", "text/jsx"},
-		{JSONType, "application", "json", "json", "application/json", "application/json"},
-		{RSSType, "application", "rss", "xml", "application/rss+xml", "application/rss+xml"},
-		{SVGType, "image", "svg", "svg", "image/svg+xml", "image/svg+xml"},
-		{TextType, "text", "plain", "txt", "text/plain", "text/plain"},
-		{XMLType, "application", "xml", "xml", "application/xml", "application/xml"},
-		{TOMLType, "application", "toml", "toml", "application/toml", "application/toml"},
-		{YAMLType, "application", "yaml", "yaml", "application/yaml", "application/yaml"},
-		{PDFType, "application", "pdf", "pdf", "application/pdf", "application/pdf"},
-		{TrueTypeFontType, "font", "ttf", "ttf", "font/ttf", "font/ttf"},
-		{OpenTypeFontType, "font", "otf", "otf", "font/otf", "font/otf"},
-	} {
-		c.Assert(test.tp.MainType, qt.Equals, test.expectedMainType)
-		c.Assert(test.tp.SubType, qt.Equals, test.expectedSubType)
-
-		c.Assert(test.tp.Type(), qt.Equals, test.expectedType)
-		c.Assert(test.tp.String(), qt.Equals, test.expectedString)
-
-	}
-
-	c.Assert(len(DefaultTypes), qt.Equals, 34)
-}
-
 func TestGetByType(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	types := Types{HTMLType, RSSType}
+	types := DefaultTypes
 
 	mt, found := types.GetByType("text/HTML")
 	c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(HTMLType, qt.Equals, mt)
+	c.Assert(mt.SubType, qt.Equals, "html")
 
 	_, found = types.GetByType("text/nono")
 	c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, false)
 
 	mt, found = types.GetByType("application/rss+xml")
 	c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(RSSType, qt.Equals, mt)
+	c.Assert(mt.SubType, qt.Equals, "rss")
 
 	mt, found = types.GetByType("application/rss")
 	c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(RSSType, qt.Equals, mt)
+	c.Assert(mt.SubType, qt.Equals, "rss")
 }
 
 func TestGetByMainSubType(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	f, found := DefaultTypes.GetByMainSubType("text", "plain")
 	c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, TextType)
+	c.Assert(f.SubType, qt.Equals, "plain")
 	_, found = DefaultTypes.GetByMainSubType("foo", "plain")
 	c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, false)
 }
@@ -107,7 +66,8 @@ func TestBySuffix(t *testing.T) {
 func TestGetFirstBySuffix(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	types := DefaultTypes
+	types := make(Types, len(DefaultTypes))
+	copy(types, DefaultTypes)
 
 	// Issue #8406
 	geoJSON := newMediaTypeWithMimeSuffix("application", "geo", "json", []string{"geojson", "gjson"})
@@ -124,8 +84,8 @@ func TestGetFirstBySuffix(t *testing.T) {
 		c.Assert(t, qt.Equals, expectedType)
 	}
 
-	check("js", JavascriptType)
-	check("json", JSONType)
+	check("js", Builtin.JavascriptType)
+	check("json", Builtin.JSONType)
 	check("geojson", geoJSON)
 	check("gjson", geoJSON)
 }
@@ -134,15 +94,15 @@ func TestFromTypeString(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	f, err := FromString("text/html")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(f.Type(), qt.Equals, HTMLType.Type())
+	c.Assert(f.Type, qt.Equals, Builtin.HTMLType.Type)
 
 	f, err = FromString("application/custom")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "custom", mimeSuffix: ""})
+	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Type{Type: "application/custom", MainType: "application", SubType: "custom", mimeSuffix: ""})
 
 	f, err = FromString("application/custom+sfx")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "custom", mimeSuffix: "sfx"})
+	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Type{Type: "application/custom+sfx", MainType: "application", SubType: "custom", mimeSuffix: "sfx"})
 
 	_, err = FromString("noslash")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
@@ -150,17 +110,17 @@ func TestFromTypeString(t *testing.T) {
 	f, err = FromString("text/xml; charset=utf-8")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "xml", mimeSuffix: ""})
+	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Type{Type: "text/xml", MainType: "text", SubType: "xml", mimeSuffix: ""})
 }
 
 func TestFromStringAndExt(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	f, err := FromStringAndExt("text/html", "html")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, HTMLType)
+	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Builtin.HTMLType)
 	f, err = FromStringAndExt("text/html", ".html")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, HTMLType)
+	c.Assert(f, qt.Equals, Builtin.HTMLType)
 }
 
 // Add a test for the SVG case
@@ -185,7 +145,6 @@ func TestFromContent(t *testing.T) {
 
 	files, err := filepath.Glob("./testdata/resource.*")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	mtypes := DefaultTypes
 
 	for _, filename := range files {
 		name := filepath.Base(filename)
@@ -199,9 +158,9 @@ func TestFromContent(t *testing.T) {
 			} else {
 				exts = []string{ext}
 			}
-			expected, _, found := mtypes.GetFirstBySuffix(ext)
+			expected, _, found := DefaultTypes.GetFirstBySuffix(ext)
 			c.Assert(found, qt.IsTrue)
-			got := FromContent(mtypes, exts, content)
+			got := FromContent(DefaultTypes, exts, content)
 			c.Assert(got, qt.Equals, expected)
 		})
 	}
@@ -212,7 +171,6 @@ func TestFromContentFakes(t *testing.T) {
 
 	files, err := filepath.Glob("./testdata/fake.*")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	mtypes := DefaultTypes
 
 	for _, filename := range files {
 		name := filepath.Base(filename)
@@ -220,109 +178,21 @@ func TestFromContentFakes(t *testing.T) {
 			content, err := os.ReadFile(filename)
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 			ext := strings.TrimPrefix(paths.Ext(filename), ".")
-			got := FromContent(mtypes, []string{ext}, content)
+			got := FromContent(DefaultTypes, []string{ext}, content)
 			c.Assert(got, qt.Equals, zero)
 		})
 	}
 }
 
-func TestDecodeTypes(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	tests := []struct {
-		name        string
-		maps        []map[string]any
-		shouldError bool
-		assert      func(t *testing.T, name string, tt Types)
-	}{
-		{
-			"Redefine JSON",
-			[]map[string]any{
-				{
-					"application/json": map[string]any{
-						"suffixes": []string{"jasn"},
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			false,
-			func(t *testing.T, name string, tt Types) {
-				c.Assert(len(tt), qt.Equals, len(DefaultTypes))
-				json, si, found := tt.GetBySuffix("jasn")
-				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(json.String(), qt.Equals, "application/json")
-				c.Assert(si.FullSuffix, qt.Equals, ".jasn")
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"MIME suffix in key, multiple file suffixes, custom delimiter",
-			[]map[string]any{
-				{
-					"application/hugo+hg": map[string]any{
-						"suffixes":  []string{"hg1", "hG2"},
-						"Delimiter": "_",
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			false,
-			func(t *testing.T, name string, tt Types) {
-				c.Assert(len(tt), qt.Equals, len(DefaultTypes)+1)
-				hg, si, found := tt.GetBySuffix("hg2")
-				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(hg.mimeSuffix, qt.Equals, "hg")
-				c.Assert(hg.FirstSuffix.Suffix, qt.Equals, "hg1")
-				c.Assert(hg.FirstSuffix.FullSuffix, qt.Equals, "_hg1")
-				c.Assert(si.Suffix, qt.Equals, "hg2")
-				c.Assert(si.FullSuffix, qt.Equals, "_hg2")
-				c.Assert(hg.String(), qt.Equals, "application/hugo+hg")
-
-				_, found = tt.GetByType("application/hugo+hg")
-				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Add custom media type",
-			[]map[string]any{
-				{
-					"text/hugo+hgo": map[string]any{
-						"Suffixes": []string{"hgo2"},
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			false,
-			func(t *testing.T, name string, tp Types) {
-				c.Assert(len(tp), qt.Equals, len(DefaultTypes)+1)
-				// Make sure we have not broken the default config.
-
-				_, _, found := tp.GetBySuffix("json")
-				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-
-				hugo, _, found := tp.GetBySuffix("hgo2")
-				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(hugo.String(), qt.Equals, "text/hugo+hgo")
-			},
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		result, err := DecodeTypes(test.maps...)
-		if test.shouldError {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		} else {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			test.assert(t, test.name, result)
-		}
-	}
-}
-
 func TestToJSON(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	b, err := json.Marshal(MPEGType)
+	b, err := json.Marshal(Builtin.MPEGType)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(string(b), qt.Equals, `{"mainType":"video","subType":"mpeg","delimiter":".","firstSuffix":{"suffix":"mpg","fullSuffix":".mpg"},"type":"video/mpeg","string":"video/mpeg","suffixes":["mpg","mpeg"]}`)
+	c.Assert(string(b), qt.Equals, `{"mainType":"video","subType":"mpeg","delimiter":".","type":"video/mpeg","string":"video/mpeg","suffixes":["mpg","mpeg"]}`)
 }
 
 func BenchmarkTypeOps(b *testing.B) {
-	mt := MPEGType
+	mt := Builtin.MPEGType
 	mts := DefaultTypes
 	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 		ff := mt.FirstSuffix
@@ -335,7 +205,7 @@ func BenchmarkTypeOps(b *testing.B) {
 		_ = mt.String()
 		_ = ff.Suffix
 		_ = mt.Suffixes
-		_ = mt.Type()
+		_ = mt.Type
 		_ = mts.BySuffix("xml")
 		_, _ = mts.GetByMainSubType("application", "xml")
 		_, _, _ = mts.GetBySuffix("xml")
diff --git a/minifiers/config.go b/minifiers/config.go
index 233f53c27..437a72e9d 100644
--- a/minifiers/config.go
+++ b/minifiers/config.go
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@ package minifiers
 
 import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/docshelper"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser"
 	"github.com/spf13/cast"
@@ -29,7 +28,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/tdewolff/minify/v2/xml"
 )
 
-var defaultTdewolffConfig = tdewolffConfig{
+var defaultTdewolffConfig = TdewolffConfig{
 	HTML: html.Minifier{
 		KeepDocumentTags:        true,
 		KeepConditionalComments: true,
@@ -52,7 +51,7 @@ var defaultTdewolffConfig = tdewolffConfig{
 	},
 }
 
-type tdewolffConfig struct {
+type TdewolffConfig struct {
 	HTML html.Minifier
 	CSS  css.Minifier
 	JS   js.Minifier
@@ -61,7 +60,7 @@ type tdewolffConfig struct {
 	XML  xml.Minifier
 }
 
-type minifyConfig struct {
+type MinifyConfig struct {
 	// Whether to minify the published output (the HTML written to /public).
 	MinifyOutput bool
 
@@ -72,30 +71,20 @@ type minifyConfig struct {
 	DisableSVG  bool
 	DisableXML  bool
 
-	Tdewolff tdewolffConfig
+	Tdewolff TdewolffConfig
 }
 
-var defaultConfig = minifyConfig{
+var defaultConfig = MinifyConfig{
 	Tdewolff: defaultTdewolffConfig,
 }
 
-func decodeConfig(cfg config.Provider) (conf minifyConfig, err error) {
+func DecodeConfig(v any) (conf MinifyConfig, err error) {
 	conf = defaultConfig
 
-	// May be set by CLI.
-	conf.MinifyOutput = cfg.GetBool("minifyOutput")
-
-	v := cfg.Get("minify")
 	if v == nil {
 		return
 	}
 
-	// Legacy.
-	if b, ok := v.(bool); ok {
-		conf.MinifyOutput = b
-		return
-	}
-
 	m := maps.ToStringMap(v)
 
 	// Handle upstream renames.
diff --git a/minifiers/config_test.go b/minifiers/config_test.go
index 57f2e5659..7169d3fce 100644
--- a/minifiers/config_test.go
+++ b/minifiers/config_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,18 +11,19 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package minifiers
+package minifiers_test
 
 import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 )
 
 func TestConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"disablexml": true,
@@ -33,9 +34,7 @@ func TestConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	})
 
-	conf, err := decodeConfig(v)
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(nil, v).Base.Minify
 
 	c.Assert(conf.MinifyOutput, qt.Equals, false)
 
@@ -52,12 +51,11 @@ func TestConfig(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestConfigLegacy(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 
 	// This was a bool < Hugo v0.58.
 	v.Set("minify", true)
 
-	conf, err := decodeConfig(v)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(nil, v).Base.Minify
 	c.Assert(conf.MinifyOutput, qt.Equals, true)
 }
diff --git a/minifiers/minifiers.go b/minifiers/minifiers.go
index 5a5cec121..2696e1c52 100644
--- a/minifiers/minifiers.go
+++ b/minifiers/minifiers.go
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ type Client struct {
 // Transformer returns a func that can be used in the transformer publishing chain.
 // TODO(bep) minify config etc
 func (m Client) Transformer(mediatype media.Type) transform.Transformer {
-	_, params, min := m.m.Match(mediatype.Type())
+	_, params, min := m.m.Match(mediatype.Type)
 	if min == nil {
 		// No minifier for this MIME type
 		return nil
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ func (m Client) Transformer(mediatype media.Type) transform.Transformer {
 
 // Minify tries to minify the src into dst given a MIME type.
 func (m Client) Minify(mediatype media.Type, dst io.Writer, src io.Reader) error {
-	return m.m.Minify(mediatype.Type(), dst, src)
+	return m.m.Minify(mediatype.Type, dst, src)
 }
 
 // noopMinifier implements minify.Minifier [1], but doesn't minify content. This means
@@ -74,13 +74,9 @@ func (m noopMinifier) Minify(_ *minify.M, w io.Writer, r io.Reader, _ map[string
 // New creates a new Client with the provided MIME types as the mapping foundation.
 // The HTML minifier is also registered for additional HTML types (AMP etc.) in the
 // provided list of output formats.
-func New(mediaTypes media.Types, outputFormats output.Formats, cfg config.Provider) (Client, error) {
-	conf, err := decodeConfig(cfg)
-
+func New(mediaTypes media.Types, outputFormats output.Formats, cfg config.AllProvider) (Client, error) {
+	conf := cfg.GetConfigSection("minify").(MinifyConfig)
 	m := minify.New()
-	if err != nil {
-		return Client{}, err
-	}
 
 	// We use the Type definition of the media types defined in the site if found.
 	addMinifier(m, mediaTypes, "css", getMinifier(conf, "css"))
@@ -99,7 +95,7 @@ func New(mediaTypes media.Types, outputFormats output.Formats, cfg config.Provid
 	addMinifier(m, mediaTypes, "html", getMinifier(conf, "html"))
 	for _, of := range outputFormats {
 		if of.IsHTML {
-			m.Add(of.MediaType.Type(), getMinifier(conf, "html"))
+			m.Add(of.MediaType.Type, getMinifier(conf, "html"))
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -108,7 +104,7 @@ func New(mediaTypes media.Types, outputFormats output.Formats, cfg config.Provid
 
 // getMinifier returns the appropriate minify.MinifierFunc for the MIME
 // type suffix s, given the config c.
-func getMinifier(c minifyConfig, s string) minify.Minifier {
+func getMinifier(c MinifyConfig, s string) minify.Minifier {
 	switch {
 	case s == "css" && !c.DisableCSS:
 		return &c.Tdewolff.CSS
@@ -130,6 +126,6 @@ func getMinifier(c minifyConfig, s string) minify.Minifier {
 func addMinifier(m *minify.M, mt media.Types, suffix string, min minify.Minifier) {
 	types := mt.BySuffix(suffix)
 	for _, t := range types {
-		m.Add(t.Type(), min)
+		m.Add(t.Type, min)
 	}
 }
diff --git a/minifiers/minifiers_test.go b/minifiers/minifiers_test.go
index 1096ca2d1..4d5d9feb5 100644
--- a/minifiers/minifiers_test.go
+++ b/minifiers/minifiers_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package minifiers
+package minifiers_test
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
@@ -21,15 +21,17 @@ import (
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/minifiers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 	"github.com/tdewolff/minify/v2/html"
 )
 
 func TestNew(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	m, _ := New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
+	m, _ := minifiers.New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, testconfig.GetTestConfig(afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil))
 
 	var rawJS string
 	var minJS string
@@ -46,26 +48,22 @@ func TestNew(t *testing.T) {
 		rawString         string
 		expectedMinString string
 	}{
-		{media.CSSType, " body { color: blue; }  ", "body{color:blue}"},
-		{media.RSSType, " <hello>  Hugo!   </hello>  ", "<hello>Hugo!</hello>"}, // RSS should be handled as XML
-		{media.JSONType, rawJSON, minJSON},
-		{media.JavascriptType, rawJS, minJS},
+		{media.Builtin.CSSType, " body { color: blue; }  ", "body{color:blue}"},
+		{media.Builtin.RSSType, " <hello>  Hugo!   </hello>  ", "<hello>Hugo!</hello>"}, // RSS should be handled as XML
+		{media.Builtin.JSONType, rawJSON, minJSON},
+		{media.Builtin.JavascriptType, rawJS, minJS},
 		// JS Regex minifiers
-		{media.Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "ecmascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "javascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "x-javascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "x-ecmascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "ecmascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "javascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "x-javascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "x-ecmascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/ecmascript", MainType: "application", SubType: "ecmascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/javascript", MainType: "application", SubType: "javascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/x-javascript", MainType: "application", SubType: "x-javascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/x-ecmascript", MainType: "application", SubType: "x-ecmascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
+		{media.Type{Type: "text/ecmascript", MainType: "text", SubType: "ecmascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/javascript", MainType: "text", SubType: "javascript"}, rawJS, minJS},
 		// JSON Regex minifiers
-		{media.Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "x-json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "application", SubType: "ld+json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "x-json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
-		{media.Type{MainType: "text", SubType: "ld+json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/json", MainType: "application", SubType: "json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/x-json", MainType: "application", SubType: "x-json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/ld+json", MainType: "application", SubType: "ld+json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
+		{media.Type{Type: "application/json", MainType: "text", SubType: "json"}, rawJSON, minJSON},
 	} {
 		var b bytes.Buffer
 
@@ -76,7 +74,7 @@ func TestNew(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestConfigureMinify(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"disablexml": true,
 		"tdewolff": map[string]any{
@@ -85,7 +83,7 @@ func TestConfigureMinify(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 		},
 	})
-	m, _ := New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
+	m, _ := minifiers.New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, testconfig.GetTestConfig(afero.NewMemMapFs(), v))
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		tp                media.Type
@@ -93,9 +91,9 @@ func TestConfigureMinify(t *testing.T) {
 		expectedMinString string
 		errorExpected     bool
 	}{
-		{media.HTMLType, "<hello> Hugo! </hello>", "<hello> Hugo! </hello>", false},            // configured minifier
-		{media.CSSType, " body { color: blue; }  ", "body{color:blue}", false},                 // default minifier
-		{media.XMLType, " <hello>  Hugo!   </hello>  ", " <hello>  Hugo!   </hello>  ", false}, // disable Xml minification
+		{media.Builtin.HTMLType, "<hello> Hugo! </hello>", "<hello> Hugo! </hello>", false},            // configured minifier
+		{media.Builtin.CSSType, " body { color: blue; }  ", "body{color:blue}", false},                 // default minifier
+		{media.Builtin.XMLType, " <hello>  Hugo!   </hello>  ", " <hello>  Hugo!   </hello>  ", false}, // disable Xml minification
 	} {
 		var b bytes.Buffer
 		if !test.errorExpected {
@@ -110,8 +108,7 @@ func TestConfigureMinify(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestJSONRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	m, _ := New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
+	m, _ := minifiers.New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, nil))
 
 	for _, test := range []string{`{
     "glossary": {
@@ -140,7 +137,7 @@ func TestJSONRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 		m1 := make(map[string]any)
 		m2 := make(map[string]any)
 		c.Assert(json.Unmarshal([]byte(test), &m1), qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(m.Minify(media.JSONType, &b, strings.NewReader(test)), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(m.Minify(media.Builtin.JSONType, &b, strings.NewReader(test)), qt.IsNil)
 		c.Assert(json.Unmarshal(b.Bytes(), &m2), qt.IsNil)
 		c.Assert(m1, qt.DeepEquals, m2)
 	}
@@ -148,8 +145,8 @@ func TestJSONRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestBugs(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	m, _ := New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
+	v := config.New()
+	m, _ := minifiers.New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, v))
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		tp                media.Type
@@ -157,9 +154,9 @@ func TestBugs(t *testing.T) {
 		expectedMinString string
 	}{
 		// https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/5506
-		{media.CSSType, " body { color: rgba(000, 000, 000, 0.7); }", "body{color:rgba(0,0,0,.7)}"},
+		{media.Builtin.CSSType, " body { color: rgba(000, 000, 000, 0.7); }", "body{color:rgba(0,0,0,.7)}"},
 		// https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/8332
-		{media.HTMLType, "<i class='fas fa-tags fa-fw'></i> Tags", `<i class='fas fa-tags fa-fw'></i> Tags`},
+		{media.Builtin.HTMLType, "<i class='fas fa-tags fa-fw'></i> Tags", `<i class='fas fa-tags fa-fw'></i> Tags`},
 	} {
 		var b bytes.Buffer
 
@@ -171,7 +168,7 @@ func TestBugs(t *testing.T) {
 // Renamed to Precision in v2.7.0. Check that we support both.
 func TestDecodeConfigDecimalIsNowPrecision(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"disablexml": true,
 		"tdewolff": map[string]any{
@@ -184,9 +181,8 @@ func TestDecodeConfigDecimalIsNowPrecision(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	})
 
-	conf, err := decodeConfig(v)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(nil, v).Base.Minify
 
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(conf.Tdewolff.CSS.Precision, qt.Equals, 3)
 
 }
@@ -194,7 +190,7 @@ func TestDecodeConfigDecimalIsNowPrecision(t *testing.T) {
 // Issue 9456
 func TestDecodeConfigKeepWhitespace(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("minify", map[string]any{
 		"tdewolff": map[string]any{
 			"html": map[string]any{
@@ -203,9 +199,8 @@ func TestDecodeConfigKeepWhitespace(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	})
 
-	conf, err := decodeConfig(v)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfigs(nil, v).Base.Minify
 
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(conf.Tdewolff.HTML, qt.DeepEquals,
 		html.Minifier{
 			KeepComments:            false,
diff --git a/modules/client.go b/modules/client.go
index 1fff787d1..59f6b25d3 100644
--- a/modules/client.go
+++ b/modules/client.go
@@ -433,9 +433,9 @@ func (c *Client) Clean(pattern string) error {
 		if g != nil && !g.Match(m.Path) {
 			continue
 		}
-		_, err = hugofs.MakeReadableAndRemoveAllModulePkgDir(c.fs, m.Dir)
+		dirCount, err := hugofs.MakeReadableAndRemoveAllModulePkgDir(c.fs, m.Dir)
 		if err == nil {
-			c.logger.Printf("hugo: cleaned module cache for %q", m.Path)
+			c.logger.Printf("hugo: removed %d dirs in module cache for %q", dirCount, m.Path)
 		}
 	}
 	return err
diff --git a/modules/collect.go b/modules/collect.go
index fcde1d379..c69e7e7ee 100644
--- a/modules/collect.go
+++ b/modules/collect.go
@@ -52,20 +52,6 @@ func IsNotExist(err error) bool {
 	return errors.Is(err, os.ErrNotExist)
 }
 
-// CreateProjectModule creates modules from the given config.
-// This is used in tests only.
-func CreateProjectModule(cfg config.Provider) (Module, error) {
-	workingDir := cfg.GetString("workingDir")
-	var modConfig Config
-
-	mod := createProjectModule(nil, workingDir, modConfig)
-	if err := ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(cfg, mod); err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	return mod, nil
-}
-
 func (h *Client) Collect() (ModulesConfig, error) {
 	mc, coll := h.collect(true)
 	if coll.err != nil {
@@ -90,6 +76,9 @@ func (h *Client) Collect() (ModulesConfig, error) {
 }
 
 func (h *Client) collect(tidy bool) (ModulesConfig, *collector) {
+	if h == nil {
+		panic("nil client")
+	}
 	c := &collector{
 		Client: h,
 	}
@@ -133,6 +122,16 @@ type ModulesConfig struct {
 	GoWorkspaceFilename string
 }
 
+func (m ModulesConfig) HasConfigFile() bool {
+	for _, mod := range m.ActiveModules {
+		if len(mod.ConfigFilenames()) > 0 {
+			return true
+		}
+
+	}
+	return false
+}
+
 func (m *ModulesConfig) setActiveMods(logger loggers.Logger) error {
 	var activeMods Modules
 	for _, mod := range m.AllModules {
@@ -230,6 +229,7 @@ func (c *collector) getVendoredDir(path string) (vendoredModule, bool) {
 }
 
 func (c *collector) add(owner *moduleAdapter, moduleImport Import, disabled bool) (*moduleAdapter, error) {
+
 	var (
 		mod       *goModule
 		moduleDir string
@@ -299,7 +299,7 @@ func (c *collector) add(owner *moduleAdapter, moduleImport Import, disabled bool
 					return nil, nil
 				}
 				if found, _ := afero.Exists(c.fs, moduleDir); !found {
-					c.err = c.wrapModuleNotFound(fmt.Errorf(`module %q not found; either add it as a Hugo Module or store it in %q.`, modulePath, c.ccfg.ThemesDir))
+					c.err = c.wrapModuleNotFound(fmt.Errorf(`module %q not found in % q; either add it as a Hugo Module or store it in %q.`, modulePath, moduleDir, c.ccfg.ThemesDir))
 					return nil, nil
 				}
 			}
@@ -347,7 +347,7 @@ func (c *collector) addAndRecurse(owner *moduleAdapter, disabled bool) error {
 	moduleConfig := owner.Config()
 	if owner.projectMod {
 		if err := c.applyMounts(Import{}, owner); err != nil {
-			return err
+			return fmt.Errorf("failed to apply mounts for project module: %w", err)
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -618,7 +618,7 @@ func (c *collector) mountCommonJSConfig(owner *moduleAdapter, mounts []Mount) ([
 	// Mount the common JS config files.
 	fis, err := afero.ReadDir(c.fs, owner.Dir())
 	if err != nil {
-		return mounts, err
+		return mounts, fmt.Errorf("failed to read dir %q: %q", owner.Dir(), err)
 	}
 
 	for _, fi := range fis {
diff --git a/modules/config.go b/modules/config.go
index 9d516e841..f8faf7969 100644
--- a/modules/config.go
+++ b/modules/config.go
@@ -20,10 +20,9 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/files"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/files"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 )
 
@@ -58,12 +57,9 @@ var DefaultModuleConfig = Config{
 
 // ApplyProjectConfigDefaults applies default/missing module configuration for
 // the main project.
-func ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(cfg config.Provider, mod Module) error {
-	moda := mod.(*moduleAdapter)
+func ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(mod Module, cfgs ...config.AllProvider) error {
 
-	// Map legacy directory config into the new module.
-	languages := cfg.Get("languagesSortedDefaultFirst").(langs.Languages)
-	isMultiHost := languages.IsMultihost()
+	moda := mod.(*moduleAdapter)
 
 	// To bridge between old and new configuration format we need
 	// a way to make sure all of the core components are configured on
@@ -75,121 +71,92 @@ func ApplyProjectConfigDefaults(cfg config.Provider, mod Module) error {
 		}
 	}
 
-	type dirKeyComponent struct {
-		key          string
-		component    string
-		multilingual bool
-	}
-
-	dirKeys := []dirKeyComponent{
-		{"contentDir", files.ComponentFolderContent, true},
-		{"dataDir", files.ComponentFolderData, false},
-		{"layoutDir", files.ComponentFolderLayouts, false},
-		{"i18nDir", files.ComponentFolderI18n, false},
-		{"archetypeDir", files.ComponentFolderArchetypes, false},
-		{"assetDir", files.ComponentFolderAssets, false},
-		{"", files.ComponentFolderStatic, isMultiHost},
-	}
+	var mounts []Mount
 
-	createMountsFor := func(d dirKeyComponent, cfg config.Provider) []Mount {
-		var lang string
-		if language, ok := cfg.(*langs.Language); ok {
-			lang = language.Lang
+	for _, component := range []string{
+		files.ComponentFolderContent,
+		files.ComponentFolderData,
+		files.ComponentFolderLayouts,
+		files.ComponentFolderI18n,
+		files.ComponentFolderArchetypes,
+		files.ComponentFolderAssets,
+		files.ComponentFolderStatic,
+	} {
+		if componentsConfigured[component] {
+			continue
 		}
 
-		// Static mounts are a little special.
-		if d.component == files.ComponentFolderStatic {
-			var mounts []Mount
-			staticDirs := getStaticDirs(cfg)
-			if len(staticDirs) > 0 {
-				componentsConfigured[d.component] = true
+		first := cfgs[0]
+		dirsBase := first.DirsBase()
+		isMultiHost := first.IsMultihost()
+
+		for i, cfg := range cfgs {
+			dirs := cfg.Dirs()
+			var dir string
+			var dropLang bool
+			switch component {
+			case files.ComponentFolderContent:
+				dir = dirs.ContentDir
+				dropLang = dir == dirsBase.ContentDir
+			case files.ComponentFolderData:
+				dir = dirs.DataDir
+			case files.ComponentFolderLayouts:
+				dir = dirs.LayoutDir
+			case files.ComponentFolderI18n:
+				dir = dirs.I18nDir
+			case files.ComponentFolderArchetypes:
+				dir = dirs.ArcheTypeDir
+			case files.ComponentFolderAssets:
+				dir = dirs.AssetDir
+			case files.ComponentFolderStatic:
+				// For static dirs, we only care about the language in multihost setups.
+				dropLang = !isMultiHost
 			}
 
-			for _, dir := range staticDirs {
-				mounts = append(mounts, Mount{Lang: lang, Source: dir, Target: d.component})
+			var perLang bool
+			switch component {
+			case files.ComponentFolderContent, files.ComponentFolderStatic:
+				perLang = true
+			default:
+			}
+			if i > 0 && !perLang {
+				continue
 			}
 
-			return mounts
-
-		}
-
-		if cfg.IsSet(d.key) {
-			source := cfg.GetString(d.key)
-			componentsConfigured[d.component] = true
-
-			return []Mount{{
-				// No lang set for layouts etc.
-				Source: source,
-				Target: d.component,
-			}}
-		}
-
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	createMounts := func(d dirKeyComponent) []Mount {
-		var mounts []Mount
-		if d.multilingual {
-			if d.component == files.ComponentFolderContent {
-				seen := make(map[string]bool)
-				hasContentDir := false
-				for _, language := range languages {
-					if language.ContentDir != "" {
-						hasContentDir = true
-						break
-					}
-				}
+			var lang string
+			if perLang && !dropLang {
+				lang = cfg.Language().Lang
+			}
 
-				if hasContentDir {
-					for _, language := range languages {
-						contentDir := language.ContentDir
-						if contentDir == "" {
-							contentDir = files.ComponentFolderContent
-						}
-						if contentDir == "" || seen[contentDir] {
-							continue
-						}
-						seen[contentDir] = true
-						mounts = append(mounts, Mount{Lang: language.Lang, Source: contentDir, Target: d.component})
-					}
+			// Static mounts are a little special.
+			if component == files.ComponentFolderStatic {
+				staticDirs := cfg.StaticDirs()
+				for _, dir := range staticDirs {
+					mounts = append(mounts, Mount{Lang: lang, Source: dir, Target: component})
 				}
+				continue
+			}
 
-				componentsConfigured[d.component] = len(seen) > 0
-
-			} else {
-				for _, language := range languages {
-					mounts = append(mounts, createMountsFor(d, language)...)
-				}
+			if dir != "" {
+				mounts = append(mounts, Mount{Lang: lang, Source: dir, Target: component})
 			}
-		} else {
-			mounts = append(mounts, createMountsFor(d, cfg)...)
 		}
-
-		return mounts
 	}
 
-	var mounts []Mount
-	for _, dirKey := range dirKeys {
-		if componentsConfigured[dirKey.component] {
-			continue
-		}
-
-		mounts = append(mounts, createMounts(dirKey)...)
+	moda.mounts = append(moda.mounts, mounts...)
 
-	}
-
-	// Add default configuration
-	for _, dirKey := range dirKeys {
-		if componentsConfigured[dirKey.component] {
+	// Temporary: Remove duplicates.
+	seen := make(map[string]bool)
+	var newMounts []Mount
+	for _, m := range moda.mounts {
+		key := m.Source + m.Target + m.Lang
+		if seen[key] {
 			continue
 		}
-		mounts = append(mounts, Mount{Source: dirKey.component, Target: dirKey.component})
+		seen[key] = true
+		newMounts = append(newMounts, m)
 	}
-
-	// Prepend the mounts from configuration.
-	mounts = append(moda.mounts, mounts...)
-
-	moda.mounts = mounts
+	moda.mounts = newMounts
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -275,7 +242,6 @@ func decodeConfig(cfg config.Provider, pathReplacements map[string]string) (Conf
 				Path: imp,
 			})
 		}
-
 	}
 
 	return c, nil
@@ -283,7 +249,10 @@ func decodeConfig(cfg config.Provider, pathReplacements map[string]string) (Conf
 
 // Config holds a module config.
 type Config struct {
-	Mounts  []Mount
+	// File system mounts.
+	Mounts []Mount
+
+	// Module imports.
 	Imports []Import
 
 	// Meta info about this module (license information etc.).
@@ -292,8 +261,7 @@ type Config struct {
 	// Will be validated against the running Hugo version.
 	HugoVersion HugoVersion
 
-	// A optional Glob pattern matching module paths to skip when vendoring, e.g.
-	// "github.com/**".
+	// Optional Glob pattern matching module paths to skip when vendoring, e.g. “github.com/**”
 	NoVendor string
 
 	// When enabled, we will pick the vendored module closest to the module
@@ -303,21 +271,31 @@ type Config struct {
 	// so once it is in use it cannot be redefined.
 	VendorClosest bool
 
+	// A comma separated (or a slice) list of module path to directory replacement mapping,
+	// e.g. github.com/bep/my-theme -> ../..,github.com/bep/shortcodes -> /some/path.
+	// This is mostly useful for temporary locally development of a module, and then it makes sense to set it as an
+	// OS environment variable, e.g: env HUGO_MODULE_REPLACEMENTS="github.com/bep/my-theme -> ../..".
+	// Any relative path is relate to themesDir, and absolute paths are allowed.
 	Replacements    []string
 	replacementsMap map[string]string
 
-	// Configures GOPROXY.
+	// Defines the proxy server to use to download remote modules. Default is direct, which means “git clone” and similar.
+	// Configures GOPROXY when running the Go command for module operations.
 	Proxy string
-	// Configures GONOPROXY.
+
+	// Comma separated glob list matching paths that should not use the proxy configured above.
+	// Configures GONOPROXY when running the Go command for module operations.
 	NoProxy string
-	// Configures GOPRIVATE.
+
+	// Comma separated glob list matching paths that should be treated as private.
+	// Configures GOPRIVATE when running the Go command for module operations.
 	Private string
 
 	// Defaults to "off".
 	// Set to a work file, e.g. hugo.work, to enable Go "Workspace" mode.
 	// Can be relative to the working directory or absolute.
-	// Requires Go 1.18+
-	// See https://tip.golang.org/doc/go1.18
+	// Requires Go 1.18+.
+	// Note that this can also be set via OS env, e.g. export HUGO_MODULE_WORKSPACE=/my/hugo.work.
 	Workspace string
 }
 
@@ -387,21 +365,33 @@ func (v HugoVersion) IsValid() bool {
 }
 
 type Import struct {
-	Path                string // Module path
-	pathProjectReplaced bool   // Set when Path is replaced in project config.
-	IgnoreConfig        bool   // Ignore any config in config.toml (will still follow imports).
-	IgnoreImports       bool   // Do not follow any configured imports.
-	NoMounts            bool   // Do not mount any folder in this import.
-	NoVendor            bool   // Never vendor this import (only allowed in main project).
-	Disable             bool   // Turn off this module.
-	Mounts              []Mount
+	// Module path
+	Path string
+	// Set when Path is replaced in project config.
+	pathProjectReplaced bool
+	// Ignore any config in config.toml (will still follow imports).
+	IgnoreConfig bool
+	// Do not follow any configured imports.
+	IgnoreImports bool
+	// Do not mount any folder in this import.
+	NoMounts bool
+	// Never vendor this import (only allowed in main project).
+	NoVendor bool
+	// Turn off this module.
+	Disable bool
+	// File mounts.
+	Mounts []Mount
 }
 
 type Mount struct {
-	Source string // relative path in source repo, e.g. "scss"
-	Target string // relative target path, e.g. "assets/bootstrap/scss"
+	// Relative path in source repo, e.g. "scss".
+	Source string
 
-	Lang string // any language code associated with this mount.
+	// Relative target path, e.g. "assets/bootstrap/scss".
+	Target string
+
+	// Any file in this mount will be associated with this language.
+	Lang string
 
 	// Include only files matching the given Glob patterns (string or slice).
 	IncludeFiles any
@@ -423,19 +413,3 @@ func (m Mount) ComponentAndName() (string, string) {
 	c, n, _ := strings.Cut(m.Target, fileSeparator)
 	return c, n
 }
-
-func getStaticDirs(cfg config.Provider) []string {
-	var staticDirs []string
-	for i := -1; i <= 10; i++ {
-		staticDirs = append(staticDirs, getStringOrStringSlice(cfg, "staticDir", i)...)
-	}
-	return staticDirs
-}
-
-func getStringOrStringSlice(cfg config.Provider, key string, id int) []string {
-	if id >= 0 {
-		key = fmt.Sprintf("%s%d", key, id)
-	}
-
-	return config.GetStringSlicePreserveString(cfg, key)
-}
diff --git a/navigation/menu.go b/navigation/menu.go
index cb280823c..a5b74b6fa 100644
--- a/navigation/menu.go
+++ b/navigation/menu.go
@@ -15,14 +15,14 @@
 package navigation
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
 	"html/template"
 	"sort"
-	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/compare"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/cast"
 )
@@ -32,44 +32,20 @@ var smc = newMenuCache()
 // MenuEntry represents a menu item defined in either Page front matter
 // or in the site config.
 type MenuEntry struct {
-	// The URL value from front matter / config.
-	ConfiguredURL string
-
-	// The Page connected to this menu entry.
-	Page Page
-
-	// The path to the page, only relevant for menus defined in site config.
-	PageRef string
-
-	// The name of the menu entry.
-	Name string
+	// The menu entry configuration.
+	MenuConfig
 
 	// The menu containing this menu entry.
 	Menu string
 
-	// Used to identify this menu entry.
-	Identifier string
-
-	title string
-
-	// If set, will be rendered before this menu entry.
-	Pre template.HTML
-
-	// If set, will be rendered after this menu entry.
-	Post template.HTML
-
-	// The weight of this menu entry, used for sorting.
-	// Set to a non-zero value, negative or positive.
-	Weight int
+	// The URL value from front matter / config.
+	ConfiguredURL string
 
-	// Identifier of the parent menu entry.
-	Parent string
+	// The Page connected to this menu entry.
+	Page Page
 
 	// Child entries.
 	Children Menu
-
-	// User defined params.
-	Params maps.Params
 }
 
 func (m *MenuEntry) URL() string {
@@ -88,9 +64,24 @@ func (m *MenuEntry) URL() string {
 	return m.ConfiguredURL
 }
 
+// SetPageValues sets the Page and URL values for this menu entry.
+func SetPageValues(m *MenuEntry, p Page) {
+	m.Page = p
+	if m.MenuConfig.Name == "" {
+		m.MenuConfig.Name = p.LinkTitle()
+	}
+	if m.MenuConfig.Title == "" {
+		m.MenuConfig.Title = p.Title()
+	}
+	if m.MenuConfig.Weight == 0 {
+		m.MenuConfig.Weight = p.Weight()
+	}
+}
+
 // A narrow version of page.Page.
 type Page interface {
 	LinkTitle() string
+	Title() string
 	RelPermalink() string
 	Path() string
 	Section() string
@@ -155,46 +146,23 @@ func (m *MenuEntry) isSamePage(p Page) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// For internal use.
-func (m *MenuEntry) MarshallMap(ime map[string]any) error {
-	var err error
-	for k, v := range ime {
-		loki := strings.ToLower(k)
-		switch loki {
-		case "url":
-			m.ConfiguredURL = cast.ToString(v)
-		case "pageref":
-			m.PageRef = cast.ToString(v)
-		case "weight":
-			m.Weight = cast.ToInt(v)
-		case "name":
-			m.Name = cast.ToString(v)
-		case "title":
-			m.title = cast.ToString(v)
-		case "pre":
-			m.Pre = template.HTML(cast.ToString(v))
-		case "post":
-			m.Post = template.HTML(cast.ToString(v))
-		case "identifier":
-			m.Identifier = cast.ToString(v)
-		case "parent":
-			m.Parent = cast.ToString(v)
-		case "params":
-			var ok bool
-			m.Params, ok = maps.ToParamsAndPrepare(v)
-			if !ok {
-				err = fmt.Errorf("cannot convert %T to Params", v)
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to marshal menu entry %q: %w", m.KeyName(), err)
-	}
-
-	return nil
+// MenuConfig holds the configuration for a menu.
+type MenuConfig struct {
+	Identifier string
+	Parent     string
+	Name       string
+	Pre        template.HTML
+	Post       template.HTML
+	URL        string
+	PageRef    string
+	Weight     int
+	Title      string
+	// User defined params.
+	Params maps.Params
 }
 
+// For internal use.
+
 // This is for internal use only.
 func (m Menu) Add(me *MenuEntry) Menu {
 	m = append(m, me)
@@ -303,14 +271,49 @@ func (m Menu) Clone() Menu {
 	return append(Menu(nil), m...)
 }
 
-func (m *MenuEntry) Title() string {
-	if m.title != "" {
-		return m.title
-	}
+func DecodeConfig(in any) (*config.ConfigNamespace[map[string]MenuConfig, Menus], error) {
+	buildConfig := func(in any) (Menus, any, error) {
+		ret := Menus{}
+
+		if in == nil {
+			return ret, map[string]any{}, nil
+		}
+
+		menus, err := maps.ToStringMapE(in)
+		if err != nil {
+			return ret, nil, err
+		}
+		menus = maps.CleanConfigStringMap(menus)
+
+		for name, menu := range menus {
+			m, err := cast.ToSliceE(menu)
+			if err != nil {
+				return ret, nil, err
+			} else {
+
+				for _, entry := range m {
+					var menuConfig MenuConfig
+					if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(entry, &menuConfig); err != nil {
+						return ret, nil, err
+					}
+					maps.PrepareParams(menuConfig.Params)
+					menuEntry := MenuEntry{
+						Menu:       name,
+						MenuConfig: menuConfig,
+					}
+					menuEntry.ConfiguredURL = menuEntry.MenuConfig.URL
+
+					if ret[name] == nil {
+						ret[name] = Menu{}
+					}
+					ret[name] = ret[name].Add(&menuEntry)
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return ret, menus, nil
 
-	if m.Page != nil {
-		return m.Page.LinkTitle()
 	}
 
-	return ""
+	return config.DecodeNamespace[map[string]MenuConfig](in, buildConfig)
 }
diff --git a/navigation/menu_cache_test.go b/navigation/menu_cache_test.go
index 4bb8921bf..9943db517 100644
--- a/navigation/menu_cache_test.go
+++ b/navigation/menu_cache_test.go
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ func TestMenuCache(t *testing.T) {
 	c1 := newMenuCache()
 
 	changeFirst := func(m Menu) {
-		m[0].title = "changed"
+		m[0].MenuConfig.Title = "changed"
 	}
 
 	var o1 uint64
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ func TestMenuCache(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(c3, qt.Equals, !atomic.CompareAndSwapUint64(&o2, uint64(k), uint64(k+1)))
 				l2.Unlock()
 				c.Assert(m3, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-				c.Assert("changed", qt.Equals, m3[0].title)
+				c.Assert("changed", qt.Equals, m3[0].Title)
 			}
 		}()
 	}
diff --git a/navigation/pagemenus.go b/navigation/pagemenus.go
index 7b4f6f648..9c368f3ab 100644
--- a/navigation/pagemenus.go
+++ b/navigation/pagemenus.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/cast"
 )
@@ -54,7 +55,8 @@ func PageMenusFromPage(p Page) (PageMenus, error) {
 		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	me := MenuEntry{Page: p, Name: p.LinkTitle(), Weight: p.Weight()}
+	me := MenuEntry{}
+	SetPageValues(&me, p)
 
 	// Could be the name of the menu to attach it to
 	mname, err := cast.ToStringE(ms)
@@ -87,17 +89,17 @@ func PageMenusFromPage(p Page) (PageMenus, error) {
 	}
 
 	for name, menu := range menus {
-		menuEntry := MenuEntry{Page: p, Name: p.LinkTitle(), Weight: p.Weight(), Menu: name}
+		menuEntry := MenuEntry{Menu: name}
 		if menu != nil {
 			ime, err := maps.ToStringMapE(menu)
 			if err != nil {
 				return pm, wrapErr(err)
 			}
-
-			if err = menuEntry.MarshallMap(ime); err != nil {
-				return pm, wrapErr(err)
+			if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(ime, &menuEntry.MenuConfig); err != nil {
+				return pm, err
 			}
 		}
+		SetPageValues(&menuEntry, p)
 		pm[name] = &menuEntry
 	}
 
diff --git a/output/config.go b/output/config.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..7b83ef9de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/output/config.go
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package output
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"reflect"
+	"sort"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
+)
+
+// OutputFormatConfig configures a single output format.
+type OutputFormatConfig struct {
+	// The MediaType string. This must be a configured media type.
+	MediaType string
+	Format
+}
+
+func DecodeConfig(mediaTypes media.Types, in any) (*config.ConfigNamespace[map[string]OutputFormatConfig, Formats], error) {
+	buildConfig := func(in any) (Formats, any, error) {
+		f := make(Formats, len(DefaultFormats))
+		copy(f, DefaultFormats)
+		if in != nil {
+			m, err := maps.ToStringMapE(in)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed convert config to map: %s", err)
+			}
+			m = maps.CleanConfigStringMap(m)
+
+			for k, v := range m {
+				found := false
+				for i, vv := range f {
+					// Both are lower case.
+					if k == vv.Name {
+						// Merge it with the existing
+						if err := decode(mediaTypes, v, &f[i]); err != nil {
+							return f, nil, err
+						}
+						found = true
+					}
+				}
+				if found {
+					continue
+				}
+
+				var newOutFormat Format
+				newOutFormat.Name = k
+				if err := decode(mediaTypes, v, &newOutFormat); err != nil {
+					return f, nil, err
+				}
+
+				// We need values for these
+				if newOutFormat.BaseName == "" {
+					newOutFormat.BaseName = "index"
+				}
+				if newOutFormat.Rel == "" {
+					newOutFormat.Rel = "alternate"
+				}
+
+				f = append(f, newOutFormat)
+
+			}
+		}
+
+		// Also format is a map for documentation purposes.
+		docm := make(map[string]OutputFormatConfig, len(f))
+		for _, ff := range f {
+			docm[ff.Name] = OutputFormatConfig{
+				MediaType: ff.MediaType.Type,
+				Format:    ff,
+			}
+		}
+
+		sort.Sort(f)
+		return f, docm, nil
+	}
+
+	return config.DecodeNamespace[map[string]OutputFormatConfig](in, buildConfig)
+}
+
+func decode(mediaTypes media.Types, input any, output *Format) error {
+	config := &mapstructure.DecoderConfig{
+		Metadata:         nil,
+		Result:           output,
+		WeaklyTypedInput: true,
+		DecodeHook: func(a reflect.Type, b reflect.Type, c any) (any, error) {
+			if a.Kind() == reflect.Map {
+				dataVal := reflect.Indirect(reflect.ValueOf(c))
+				for _, key := range dataVal.MapKeys() {
+					keyStr, ok := key.Interface().(string)
+					if !ok {
+						// Not a string key
+						continue
+					}
+					if strings.EqualFold(keyStr, "mediaType") {
+						// If mediaType is a string, look it up and replace it
+						// in the map.
+						vv := dataVal.MapIndex(key)
+						vvi := vv.Interface()
+
+						switch vviv := vvi.(type) {
+						case media.Type:
+						// OK
+						case string:
+							mediaType, found := mediaTypes.GetByType(vviv)
+							if !found {
+								return c, fmt.Errorf("media type %q not found", vviv)
+							}
+							dataVal.SetMapIndex(key, reflect.ValueOf(mediaType))
+						default:
+							return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid output format configuration; wrong type for media type, expected string (e.g. text/html), got %T", vvi)
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			}
+			return c, nil
+		},
+	}
+
+	decoder, err := mapstructure.NewDecoder(config)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	if err = decoder.Decode(input); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to decode output format configuration: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+
+}
diff --git a/output/config_test.go b/output/config_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..52381c5d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/output/config_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package output
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+)
+
+func TestDecodeConfig(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
+	mediaTypes := media.Types{media.Builtin.JSONType, media.Builtin.XMLType}
+
+	tests := []struct {
+		name        string
+		m           map[string]any
+		shouldError bool
+		assert      func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats)
+	}{
+		{
+			"Redefine JSON",
+			map[string]any{
+				"json": map[string]any{
+					"baseName":    "myindex",
+					"isPlainText": "false",
+				},
+			},
+			false,
+			func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats) {
+				msg := qt.Commentf(name)
+				c.Assert(len(f), qt.Equals, len(DefaultFormats), msg)
+				json, _ := f.GetByName("JSON")
+				c.Assert(json.BaseName, qt.Equals, "myindex")
+				c.Assert(json.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.JSONType)
+				c.Assert(json.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, false)
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"Add XML format with string as mediatype",
+			map[string]any{
+				"MYXMLFORMAT": map[string]any{
+					"baseName":  "myxml",
+					"mediaType": "application/xml",
+				},
+			},
+			false,
+			func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats) {
+				c.Assert(len(f), qt.Equals, len(DefaultFormats)+1)
+				xml, found := f.GetByName("MYXMLFORMAT")
+				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
+				c.Assert(xml.BaseName, qt.Equals, "myxml")
+				c.Assert(xml.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.XMLType)
+
+				// Verify that we haven't changed the DefaultFormats slice.
+				json, _ := f.GetByName("JSON")
+				c.Assert(json.BaseName, qt.Equals, "index")
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"Add format unknown mediatype",
+			map[string]any{
+				"MYINVALID": map[string]any{
+					"baseName":  "mymy",
+					"mediaType": "application/hugo",
+				},
+			},
+			true,
+			func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats) {
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	for _, test := range tests {
+		result, err := DecodeConfig(mediaTypes, test.m)
+		msg := qt.Commentf(test.name)
+
+		if test.shouldError {
+			c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil), msg)
+		} else {
+			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil, msg)
+			test.assert(t, test.name, result.Config)
+		}
+	}
+}
diff --git a/output/docshelper.go b/output/docshelper.go
index abfedd148..fa8ed1342 100644
--- a/output/docshelper.go
+++ b/output/docshelper.go
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import (
 	//	"fmt"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/docshelper"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output/layouts"
 )
 
 // This is is just some helpers used to create some JSON used in the Hugo docs.
@@ -39,44 +40,43 @@ func createLayoutExamples() any {
 
 	for _, example := range []struct {
 		name string
-		d    LayoutDescriptor
-		f    Format
+		d    layouts.LayoutDescriptor
 	}{
-		// Taxonomy output.LayoutDescriptor={categories category taxonomy en  false Type Section
-		{"Single page in \"posts\" section", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts"}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Base template for single page in \"posts\" section", LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "page", Type: "posts"}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Single page in \"posts\" section with layout set", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts", Layout: demoLayout}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Base template for single page in \"posts\" section with layout set", LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "page", Type: "posts", Layout: demoLayout}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"AMP single page", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts"}, AMPFormat},
-		{"AMP single page, French language", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts", Lang: "fr"}, AMPFormat},
+		// Taxonomy layouts.LayoutDescriptor={categories category taxonomy en  false Type Section
+		{"Single page in \"posts\" section", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Base template for single page in \"posts\" section", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "page", Type: "posts", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Single page in \"posts\" section with layout set", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts", Layout: demoLayout, OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Base template for single page in \"posts\" section with layout set", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "page", Type: "posts", Layout: demoLayout, OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"AMP single page", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"AMP single page, French language", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Type: "posts", Lang: "fr", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
 		// All section or typeless pages gets "page" as type
-		{"Home page", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page"}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Base template for home page", LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "home", Type: "page"}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Home page with type set", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: demoType}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Base template for home page with type set", LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "home", Type: demoType}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Home page with layout set", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page", Layout: demoLayout}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"AMP home, French language", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page", Lang: "fr"}, AMPFormat},
-		{"JSON home", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page"}, JSONFormat},
-		{"RSS home", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page"}, RSSFormat},
-		{"RSS section posts", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Type: "posts"}, RSSFormat},
-		{"Taxonomy in categories", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Type: "categories", Section: "category"}, RSSFormat},
-		{"Term in categories", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Type: "categories", Section: "category"}, RSSFormat},
-		{"Section list for \"posts\" section", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Type: "posts", Section: "posts"}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Section list for \"posts\" section with type set to \"blog\"", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Type: "blog", Section: "posts"}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Section list for \"posts\" section with layout set to \"demoLayout\"", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Layout: demoLayout, Section: "posts"}, HTMLFormat},
+		{"Home page", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Base template for home page", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "home", Type: "page", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Home page with type set", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: demoType, OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Base template for home page with type set", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Baseof: true, Kind: "home", Type: demoType, OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Home page with layout set", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page", Layout: demoLayout, OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"AMP home, French language", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page", Lang: "fr", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"JSON home", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page", OutputFormatName: "json", Suffix: "json"}},
+		{"RSS home", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Type: "page", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "rss"}},
+		{"RSS section posts", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Type: "posts", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "rss"}},
+		{"Taxonomy in categories", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Type: "categories", Section: "category", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "rss"}},
+		{"Term in categories", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Type: "categories", Section: "category", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "rss"}},
+		{"Section list for \"posts\" section", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Type: "posts", Section: "posts", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Section list for \"posts\" section with type set to \"blog\"", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Type: "blog", Section: "posts", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Section list for \"posts\" section with layout set to \"demoLayout\"", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Layout: demoLayout, Section: "posts", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
 
-		{"Taxonomy list in categories", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Type: "categories", Section: "category"}, HTMLFormat},
-		{"Taxonomy term in categories", LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Type: "categories", Section: "category"}, HTMLFormat},
+		{"Taxonomy list in categories", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Type: "categories", Section: "category", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
+		{"Taxonomy term in categories", layouts.LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Type: "categories", Section: "category", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"}},
 	} {
 
-		l := NewLayoutHandler()
-		layouts, _ := l.For(example.d, example.f)
+		l := layouts.NewLayoutHandler()
+		layouts, _ := l.For(example.d)
 
 		basicExamples = append(basicExamples, Example{
 			Example:      example.name,
 			Kind:         example.d.Kind,
-			OutputFormat: example.f.Name,
-			Suffix:       example.f.MediaType.FirstSuffix.Suffix,
+			OutputFormat: example.d.OutputFormatName,
+			Suffix:       example.d.Suffix,
 			Layouts:      makeLayoutsPresentable(layouts),
 		})
 	}
diff --git a/output/layout.go b/output/layouts/layout.go
index dcbdf461a..9c5ef17a1 100644
--- a/output/layout.go
+++ b/output/layouts/layout.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2017-present The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,13 +11,11 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package output
+package layouts
 
 import (
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 )
 
 // These may be used as content sections with potential conflicts. Avoid that.
@@ -43,6 +41,10 @@ type LayoutDescriptor struct {
 	// LayoutOverride indicates what we should only look for the above layout.
 	LayoutOverride bool
 
+	// From OutputFormat and MediaType.
+	OutputFormatName string
+	Suffix           string
+
 	RenderingHook bool
 	Baseof        bool
 }
@@ -54,37 +56,31 @@ func (d LayoutDescriptor) isList() bool {
 // LayoutHandler calculates the layout template to use to render a given output type.
 type LayoutHandler struct {
 	mu    sync.RWMutex
-	cache map[layoutCacheKey][]string
-}
-
-type layoutCacheKey struct {
-	d LayoutDescriptor
-	f string
+	cache map[LayoutDescriptor][]string
 }
 
 // NewLayoutHandler creates a new LayoutHandler.
 func NewLayoutHandler() *LayoutHandler {
-	return &LayoutHandler{cache: make(map[layoutCacheKey][]string)}
+	return &LayoutHandler{cache: make(map[LayoutDescriptor][]string)}
 }
 
 // For returns a layout for the given LayoutDescriptor and options.
 // Layouts are rendered and cached internally.
-func (l *LayoutHandler) For(d LayoutDescriptor, f Format) ([]string, error) {
+func (l *LayoutHandler) For(d LayoutDescriptor) ([]string, error) {
 	// We will get lots of requests for the same layouts, so avoid recalculations.
-	key := layoutCacheKey{d, f.Name}
 	l.mu.RLock()
-	if cacheVal, found := l.cache[key]; found {
+	if cacheVal, found := l.cache[d]; found {
 		l.mu.RUnlock()
 		return cacheVal, nil
 	}
 	l.mu.RUnlock()
 
-	layouts := resolvePageTemplate(d, f)
+	layouts := resolvePageTemplate(d)
 
-	layouts = helpers.UniqueStringsReuse(layouts)
+	layouts = uniqueStringsReuse(layouts)
 
 	l.mu.Lock()
-	l.cache[key] = layouts
+	l.cache[d] = layouts
 	l.mu.Unlock()
 
 	return layouts, nil
@@ -94,7 +90,7 @@ type layoutBuilder struct {
 	layoutVariations []string
 	typeVariations   []string
 	d                LayoutDescriptor
-	f                Format
+	//f                Format
 }
 
 func (l *layoutBuilder) addLayoutVariations(vars ...string) {
@@ -134,8 +130,8 @@ func (l *layoutBuilder) addKind() {
 
 const renderingHookRoot = "/_markup"
 
-func resolvePageTemplate(d LayoutDescriptor, f Format) []string {
-	b := &layoutBuilder{d: d, f: f}
+func resolvePageTemplate(d LayoutDescriptor) []string {
+	b := &layoutBuilder{d: d}
 
 	if !d.RenderingHook && d.Layout != "" {
 		b.addLayoutVariations(d.Layout)
@@ -190,7 +186,7 @@ func resolvePageTemplate(d LayoutDescriptor, f Format) []string {
 		b.addTypeVariations("")
 	}
 
-	isRSS := f.Name == RSSFormat.Name
+	isRSS := strings.EqualFold(d.OutputFormatName, "rss")
 	if !d.RenderingHook && !d.Baseof && isRSS {
 		// The historic and common rss.xml case
 		b.addLayoutVariations("")
@@ -223,7 +219,7 @@ func (l *layoutBuilder) resolveVariations() []string {
 	var layouts []string
 
 	var variations []string
-	name := strings.ToLower(l.f.Name)
+	name := strings.ToLower(l.d.OutputFormatName)
 
 	if l.d.Lang != "" {
 		// We prefer the most specific type before language.
@@ -241,7 +237,7 @@ func (l *layoutBuilder) resolveVariations() []string {
 					continue
 				}
 
-				s := constructLayoutPath(typeVar, layoutVar, variation, l.f.MediaType.FirstSuffix.Suffix)
+				s := constructLayoutPath(typeVar, layoutVar, variation, l.d.Suffix)
 				if s != "" {
 					layouts = append(layouts, s)
 				}
@@ -300,3 +296,23 @@ func constructLayoutPath(typ, layout, variations, extension string) string {
 
 	return p.String()
 }
+
+// Inline this here so we can use tinygo to compile a wasm binary of this package.
+func uniqueStringsReuse(s []string) []string {
+	result := s[:0]
+	for i, val := range s {
+		var seen bool
+
+		for j := 0; j < i; j++ {
+			if s[j] == val {
+				seen = true
+				break
+			}
+		}
+
+		if !seen {
+			result = append(result, val)
+		}
+	}
+	return result
+}
diff --git a/output/layout_test.go b/output/layouts/layout_test.go
index 8b7a2b541..2f340f238 100644
--- a/output/layout_test.go
+++ b/output/layouts/layout_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package output
+package layouts
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
@@ -19,8 +19,6 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/kylelemons/godebug/diff"
 )
@@ -28,42 +26,16 @@ import (
 func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	noExtNoDelimMediaType := media.WithDelimiterAndSuffixes(media.TextType, "", "")
-	noExtMediaType := media.WithDelimiterAndSuffixes(media.TextType, ".", "")
-
-	var (
-		ampType = Format{
-			Name:      "AMP",
-			MediaType: media.HTMLType,
-			BaseName:  "index",
-		}
-
-		htmlFormat = HTMLFormat
-
-		noExtDelimFormat = Format{
-			Name:      "NEM",
-			MediaType: noExtNoDelimMediaType,
-			BaseName:  "_redirects",
-		}
-
-		noExt = Format{
-			Name:      "NEX",
-			MediaType: noExtMediaType,
-			BaseName:  "next",
-		}
-	)
-
 	for _, this := range []struct {
 		name             string
 		layoutDescriptor LayoutDescriptor
 		layoutOverride   string
-		format           Format
 		expect           []string
 	}{
 		{
 			"Home",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index.amp.html",
 				"home.amp.html",
@@ -81,8 +53,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Home baseof",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index-baseof.amp.html",
 				"home-baseof.amp.html",
@@ -104,8 +76,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Home, HTML",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home"},
-			"", htmlFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			// We will eventually get to index.html. This looks stuttery, but makes the lookup logic easy to understand.
 			[]string{
 				"index.html.html",
@@ -124,8 +96,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Home, HTML, baseof",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Baseof: true},
-			"", htmlFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index-baseof.html.html",
 				"home-baseof.html.html",
@@ -147,8 +119,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Home, french language",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Lang: "fr"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Lang: "fr", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index.fr.amp.html",
 				"home.fr.amp.html",
@@ -178,8 +150,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Home, no ext or delim",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home"},
-			"", noExtDelimFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", OutputFormatName: "nem", Suffix: ""},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index.nem",
 				"home.nem",
@@ -191,8 +163,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Home, no ext",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home"},
-			"", noExt,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", OutputFormatName: "nex", Suffix: ""},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index.nex",
 				"home.nex",
@@ -204,14 +176,14 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page, no ext or delim",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page"},
-			"", noExtDelimFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", OutputFormatName: "nem", Suffix: ""},
+			"",
 			[]string{"_default/single.nem"},
 		},
 		{
 			"Section",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"sect1/sect1.amp.html",
 				"sect1/section.amp.html",
@@ -235,8 +207,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Section, baseof",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"sect1/sect1-baseof.amp.html",
 				"sect1/section-baseof.amp.html",
@@ -266,8 +238,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Section, baseof, French, AMP",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", Lang: "fr", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", Lang: "fr", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"sect1/sect1-baseof.fr.amp.html",
 				"sect1/section-baseof.fr.amp.html",
@@ -321,8 +293,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Section with layout",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", Layout: "mylayout"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", Layout: "mylayout", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"sect1/mylayout.amp.html",
 				"sect1/sect1.amp.html",
@@ -352,8 +324,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Term, French, AMP",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tags", Lang: "fr"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tags", Lang: "fr", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"term/term.fr.amp.html",
 				"term/tags.fr.amp.html",
@@ -423,8 +395,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Term, baseof, French, AMP",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tags", Lang: "fr", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tags", Lang: "fr", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"term/term-baseof.fr.amp.html",
 				"term/tags-baseof.fr.amp.html",
@@ -510,8 +482,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Term",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tags"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tags", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"term/term.amp.html",
 				"term/tags.amp.html",
@@ -549,8 +521,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Taxonomy",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Section: "categories"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Section: "categories", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"categories/categories.terms.amp.html",
 				"categories/terms.amp.html",
@@ -580,8 +552,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"_default/single.amp.html",
 				"_default/single.html",
@@ -589,8 +561,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page, baseof",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"_default/single-baseof.amp.html",
 				"_default/baseof.amp.html",
@@ -600,8 +572,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page with layout",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"_default/mylayout.amp.html",
 				"_default/single.amp.html",
@@ -611,8 +583,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page with layout, baseof",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"_default/mylayout-baseof.amp.html",
 				"_default/single-baseof.amp.html",
@@ -624,8 +596,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page with layout and type",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"myttype/mylayout.amp.html",
 				"myttype/single.amp.html",
@@ -639,8 +611,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page baseof with layout and type",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"myttype/mylayout-baseof.amp.html",
 				"myttype/single-baseof.amp.html",
@@ -658,8 +630,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page baseof with layout and type in French",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype", Lang: "fr", Baseof: true},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype", Lang: "fr", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"myttype/mylayout-baseof.fr.amp.html",
 				"myttype/single-baseof.fr.amp.html",
@@ -689,8 +661,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page with layout and type with subtype",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype/mysubtype"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", Layout: "mylayout", Type: "myttype/mysubtype", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"myttype/mysubtype/mylayout.amp.html",
 				"myttype/mysubtype/single.amp.html",
@@ -705,8 +677,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		// RSS
 		{
 			"RSS Home",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home"},
-			"", RSSFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "xml"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index.rss.xml",
 				"home.rss.xml",
@@ -727,8 +699,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"RSS Home, baseof",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Baseof: true},
-			"", RSSFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "xml"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index-baseof.rss.xml",
 				"home-baseof.rss.xml",
@@ -750,8 +722,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"RSS Section",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1"},
-			"", RSSFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "sect1", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "xml"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"sect1/sect1.rss.xml",
 				"sect1/section.rss.xml",
@@ -779,8 +751,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"RSS Term",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tag"},
-			"", RSSFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "term", Section: "tag", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "xml"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"term/term.rss.xml",
 				"term/tag.rss.xml",
@@ -823,8 +795,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"RSS Taxonomy",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Section: "tag"},
-			"", RSSFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Section: "tag", OutputFormatName: "rss", Suffix: "xml"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"tag/tag.terms.rss.xml",
 				"tag/terms.rss.xml",
@@ -858,8 +830,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Home plain text",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home"},
-			"", JSONFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "home", OutputFormatName: "json", Suffix: "json"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"index.json.json",
 				"home.json.json",
@@ -877,8 +849,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Page plain text",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page"},
-			"", JSONFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "page", OutputFormatName: "json", Suffix: "json"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"_default/single.json.json",
 				"_default/single.json",
@@ -886,8 +858,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Reserved section, shortcodes",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "shortcodes", Type: "shortcodes"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "shortcodes", Type: "shortcodes", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"section/shortcodes.amp.html",
 				"section/section.amp.html",
@@ -905,8 +877,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Reserved section, partials",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "partials", Type: "partials"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "section", Section: "partials", Type: "partials", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"section/partials.amp.html",
 				"section/section.amp.html",
@@ -925,8 +897,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		// This is currently always HTML only
 		{
 			"404, HTML",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "404"},
-			"", htmlFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "404", OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"404.html.html",
 				"404.html",
@@ -934,8 +906,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"404, HTML baseof",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "404", Baseof: true},
-			"", htmlFormat,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "404", Baseof: true, OutputFormatName: "html", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"404-baseof.html.html",
 				"baseof.html.html",
@@ -949,8 +921,8 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"Content hook",
-			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "render-link", RenderingHook: true, Layout: "mylayout", Section: "blog"},
-			"", ampType,
+			LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "render-link", RenderingHook: true, Layout: "mylayout", Section: "blog", OutputFormatName: "amp", Suffix: "html"},
+			"",
 			[]string{
 				"blog/_markup/render-link.amp.html",
 				"blog/_markup/render-link.html",
@@ -962,7 +934,7 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		c.Run(this.name, func(c *qt.C) {
 			l := NewLayoutHandler()
 
-			layouts, err := l.For(this.layoutDescriptor, this.format)
+			layouts, err := l.For(this.layoutDescriptor)
 
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 			c.Assert(layouts, qt.Not(qt.IsNil), qt.Commentf(this.layoutDescriptor.Kind))
@@ -981,8 +953,10 @@ func TestLayout(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 		})
 	}
+
 }
 
+/*
 func BenchmarkLayout(b *testing.B) {
 	descriptor := LayoutDescriptor{Kind: "taxonomy", Section: "categories"}
 	l := NewLayoutHandler()
@@ -1006,3 +980,4 @@ func BenchmarkLayoutUncached(b *testing.B) {
 		}
 	}
 }
+*/
diff --git a/output/outputFormat.go b/output/outputFormat.go
index 0bc08e490..f602c03f3 100644
--- a/output/outputFormat.go
+++ b/output/outputFormat.go
@@ -17,19 +17,18 @@ package output
 import (
 	"encoding/json"
 	"fmt"
-	"reflect"
 	"sort"
 	"strings"
 
-	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 )
 
 // Format represents an output representation, usually to a file on disk.
+// <docsmeta>{ "name": "OutputFormat" }</docsmeta>
 type Format struct {
-	// The Name is used as an identifier. Internal output formats (i.e. HTML and RSS)
+	// The Name is used as an identifier. Internal output formats (i.e. html and rss)
 	// can be overridden by providing a new definition for those types.
+	// <docsmeta>{ "identifiers": ["html", "rss"] }</docsmeta>
 	Name string `json:"name"`
 
 	MediaType media.Type `json:"-"`
@@ -40,14 +39,7 @@ type Format struct {
 	// The base output file name used when not using "ugly URLs", defaults to "index".
 	BaseName string `json:"baseName"`
 
-	// The value to use for rel links
-	//
-	// See https://www.w3schools.com/tags/att_link_rel.asp
-	//
-	// AMP has a special requirement in this department, see:
-	// https://www.ampproject.org/docs/guides/deploy/discovery
-	// I.e.:
-	// <link rel="amphtml" href="https://www.example.com/url/to/amp/document.html">
+	// The value to use for rel links.
 	Rel string `json:"rel"`
 
 	// The protocol to use, i.e. "webcal://". Defaults to the protocol of the baseURL.
@@ -86,8 +78,8 @@ type Format struct {
 // An ordered list of built-in output formats.
 var (
 	AMPFormat = Format{
-		Name:          "AMP",
-		MediaType:     media.HTMLType,
+		Name:          "amp",
+		MediaType:     media.Builtin.HTMLType,
 		BaseName:      "index",
 		Path:          "amp",
 		Rel:           "amphtml",
@@ -97,8 +89,8 @@ var (
 	}
 
 	CalendarFormat = Format{
-		Name:        "Calendar",
-		MediaType:   media.CalendarType,
+		Name:        "calendar",
+		MediaType:   media.Builtin.CalendarType,
 		IsPlainText: true,
 		Protocol:    "webcal://",
 		BaseName:    "index",
@@ -106,24 +98,24 @@ var (
 	}
 
 	CSSFormat = Format{
-		Name:           "CSS",
-		MediaType:      media.CSSType,
+		Name:           "css",
+		MediaType:      media.Builtin.CSSType,
 		BaseName:       "styles",
 		IsPlainText:    true,
 		Rel:            "stylesheet",
 		NotAlternative: true,
 	}
 	CSVFormat = Format{
-		Name:        "CSV",
-		MediaType:   media.CSVType,
+		Name:        "csv",
+		MediaType:   media.Builtin.CSVType,
 		BaseName:    "index",
 		IsPlainText: true,
 		Rel:         "alternate",
 	}
 
 	HTMLFormat = Format{
-		Name:          "HTML",
-		MediaType:     media.HTMLType,
+		Name:          "html",
+		MediaType:     media.Builtin.HTMLType,
 		BaseName:      "index",
 		Rel:           "canonical",
 		IsHTML:        true,
@@ -135,24 +127,24 @@ var (
 	}
 
 	MarkdownFormat = Format{
-		Name:        "MARKDOWN",
-		MediaType:   media.MarkdownType,
+		Name:        "markdown",
+		MediaType:   media.Builtin.MarkdownType,
 		BaseName:    "index",
 		Rel:         "alternate",
 		IsPlainText: true,
 	}
 
 	JSONFormat = Format{
-		Name:        "JSON",
-		MediaType:   media.JSONType,
+		Name:        "json",
+		MediaType:   media.Builtin.JSONType,
 		BaseName:    "index",
 		IsPlainText: true,
 		Rel:         "alternate",
 	}
 
 	WebAppManifestFormat = Format{
-		Name:           "WebAppManifest",
-		MediaType:      media.WebAppManifestType,
+		Name:           "webappmanifest",
+		MediaType:      media.Builtin.WebAppManifestType,
 		BaseName:       "manifest",
 		IsPlainText:    true,
 		NotAlternative: true,
@@ -160,24 +152,24 @@ var (
 	}
 
 	RobotsTxtFormat = Format{
-		Name:        "ROBOTS",
-		MediaType:   media.TextType,
+		Name:        "robots",
+		MediaType:   media.Builtin.TextType,
 		BaseName:    "robots",
 		IsPlainText: true,
 		Rel:         "alternate",
 	}
 
 	RSSFormat = Format{
-		Name:      "RSS",
-		MediaType: media.RSSType,
+		Name:      "rss",
+		MediaType: media.Builtin.RSSType,
 		BaseName:  "index",
 		NoUgly:    true,
 		Rel:       "alternate",
 	}
 
 	SitemapFormat = Format{
-		Name:      "Sitemap",
-		MediaType: media.XMLType,
+		Name:      "sitemap",
+		MediaType: media.Builtin.XMLType,
 		BaseName:  "sitemap",
 		NoUgly:    true,
 		Rel:       "sitemap",
@@ -204,6 +196,7 @@ func init() {
 }
 
 // Formats is a slice of Format.
+// <docsmeta>{ "name": "OutputFormats" }</docsmeta>
 type Formats []Format
 
 func (formats Formats) Len() int      { return len(formats) }
@@ -298,102 +291,6 @@ func (formats Formats) FromFilename(filename string) (f Format, found bool) {
 	return
 }
 
-// DecodeFormats takes a list of output format configurations and merges those,
-// in the order given, with the Hugo defaults as the last resort.
-func DecodeFormats(mediaTypes media.Types, maps ...map[string]any) (Formats, error) {
-	f := make(Formats, len(DefaultFormats))
-	copy(f, DefaultFormats)
-
-	for _, m := range maps {
-		for k, v := range m {
-			found := false
-			for i, vv := range f {
-				if strings.EqualFold(k, vv.Name) {
-					// Merge it with the existing
-					if err := decode(mediaTypes, v, &f[i]); err != nil {
-						return f, err
-					}
-					found = true
-				}
-			}
-			if !found {
-				var newOutFormat Format
-				newOutFormat.Name = k
-				if err := decode(mediaTypes, v, &newOutFormat); err != nil {
-					return f, err
-				}
-
-				// We need values for these
-				if newOutFormat.BaseName == "" {
-					newOutFormat.BaseName = "index"
-				}
-				if newOutFormat.Rel == "" {
-					newOutFormat.Rel = "alternate"
-				}
-
-				f = append(f, newOutFormat)
-
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	sort.Sort(f)
-
-	return f, nil
-}
-
-func decode(mediaTypes media.Types, input any, output *Format) error {
-	config := &mapstructure.DecoderConfig{
-		Metadata:         nil,
-		Result:           output,
-		WeaklyTypedInput: true,
-		DecodeHook: func(a reflect.Type, b reflect.Type, c any) (any, error) {
-			if a.Kind() == reflect.Map {
-				dataVal := reflect.Indirect(reflect.ValueOf(c))
-				for _, key := range dataVal.MapKeys() {
-					keyStr, ok := key.Interface().(string)
-					if !ok {
-						// Not a string key
-						continue
-					}
-					if strings.EqualFold(keyStr, "mediaType") {
-						// If mediaType is a string, look it up and replace it
-						// in the map.
-						vv := dataVal.MapIndex(key)
-						vvi := vv.Interface()
-
-						switch vviv := vvi.(type) {
-						case media.Type:
-						// OK
-						case string:
-							mediaType, found := mediaTypes.GetByType(vviv)
-							if !found {
-								return c, fmt.Errorf("media type %q not found", vviv)
-							}
-							dataVal.SetMapIndex(key, reflect.ValueOf(mediaType))
-						default:
-							return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid output format configuration; wrong type for media type, expected string (e.g. text/html), got %T", vvi)
-						}
-					}
-				}
-			}
-			return c, nil
-		},
-	}
-
-	decoder, err := mapstructure.NewDecoder(config)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-
-	if err = decoder.Decode(input); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("failed to decode output format configuration: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	return nil
-
-}
-
 // BaseFilename returns the base filename of f including an extension (ie.
 // "index.xml").
 func (f Format) BaseFilename() string {
diff --git a/output/outputFormat_test.go b/output/outputFormat_test.go
index c5c4534bf..13e24af3b 100644
--- a/output/outputFormat_test.go
+++ b/output/outputFormat_test.go
@@ -23,46 +23,46 @@ import (
 
 func TestDefaultTypes(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "Calendar")
-	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.CalendarType)
+	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "calendar")
+	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.CalendarType)
 	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.Protocol, qt.Equals, "webcal://")
 	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.Path, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, true)
 	c.Assert(CalendarFormat.IsHTML, qt.Equals, false)
 
-	c.Assert(CSSFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "CSS")
-	c.Assert(CSSFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.CSSType)
+	c.Assert(CSSFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "css")
+	c.Assert(CSSFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.CSSType)
 	c.Assert(CSSFormat.Path, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(CSSFormat.Protocol, qt.HasLen, 0) // Will inherit the BaseURL protocol.
 	c.Assert(CSSFormat.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, true)
 	c.Assert(CSSFormat.IsHTML, qt.Equals, false)
 
-	c.Assert(CSVFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "CSV")
-	c.Assert(CSVFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.CSVType)
+	c.Assert(CSVFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "csv")
+	c.Assert(CSVFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.CSVType)
 	c.Assert(CSVFormat.Path, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(CSVFormat.Protocol, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(CSVFormat.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, true)
 	c.Assert(CSVFormat.IsHTML, qt.Equals, false)
 	c.Assert(CSVFormat.Permalinkable, qt.Equals, false)
 
-	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "HTML")
-	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.HTMLType)
+	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "html")
+	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.HTMLType)
 	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.Path, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.Protocol, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, false)
 	c.Assert(HTMLFormat.IsHTML, qt.Equals, true)
 	c.Assert(AMPFormat.Permalinkable, qt.Equals, true)
 
-	c.Assert(AMPFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "AMP")
-	c.Assert(AMPFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.HTMLType)
+	c.Assert(AMPFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "amp")
+	c.Assert(AMPFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.HTMLType)
 	c.Assert(AMPFormat.Path, qt.Equals, "amp")
 	c.Assert(AMPFormat.Protocol, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(AMPFormat.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, false)
 	c.Assert(AMPFormat.IsHTML, qt.Equals, true)
 	c.Assert(AMPFormat.Permalinkable, qt.Equals, true)
 
-	c.Assert(RSSFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "RSS")
-	c.Assert(RSSFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.RSSType)
+	c.Assert(RSSFormat.Name, qt.Equals, "rss")
+	c.Assert(RSSFormat.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.Builtin.RSSType)
 	c.Assert(RSSFormat.Path, qt.HasLen, 0)
 	c.Assert(RSSFormat.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, false)
 	c.Assert(RSSFormat.NoUgly, qt.Equals, true)
@@ -101,10 +101,10 @@ func TestGetFormatByExt(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestGetFormatByFilename(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	noExtNoDelimMediaType := media.TextType
+	noExtNoDelimMediaType := media.Builtin.TextType
 	noExtNoDelimMediaType.Delimiter = ""
 
-	noExtMediaType := media.TextType
+	noExtMediaType := media.Builtin.TextType
 
 	var (
 		noExtDelimFormat = Format{
@@ -138,117 +138,10 @@ func TestGetFormatByFilename(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, false)
 }
 
-func TestDecodeFormats(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	mediaTypes := media.Types{media.JSONType, media.XMLType}
-
-	tests := []struct {
-		name        string
-		maps        []map[string]any
-		shouldError bool
-		assert      func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats)
-	}{
-		{
-			"Redefine JSON",
-			[]map[string]any{
-				{
-					"JsON": map[string]any{
-						"baseName":    "myindex",
-						"isPlainText": "false",
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			false,
-			func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats) {
-				msg := qt.Commentf(name)
-				c.Assert(len(f), qt.Equals, len(DefaultFormats), msg)
-				json, _ := f.GetByName("JSON")
-				c.Assert(json.BaseName, qt.Equals, "myindex")
-				c.Assert(json.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.JSONType)
-				c.Assert(json.IsPlainText, qt.Equals, false)
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Add XML format with string as mediatype",
-			[]map[string]any{
-				{
-					"MYXMLFORMAT": map[string]any{
-						"baseName":  "myxml",
-						"mediaType": "application/xml",
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			false,
-			func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats) {
-				c.Assert(len(f), qt.Equals, len(DefaultFormats)+1)
-				xml, found := f.GetByName("MYXMLFORMAT")
-				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(xml.BaseName, qt.Equals, "myxml")
-				c.Assert(xml.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.XMLType)
-
-				// Verify that we haven't changed the DefaultFormats slice.
-				json, _ := f.GetByName("JSON")
-				c.Assert(json.BaseName, qt.Equals, "index")
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Add format unknown mediatype",
-			[]map[string]any{
-				{
-					"MYINVALID": map[string]any{
-						"baseName":  "mymy",
-						"mediaType": "application/hugo",
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			true,
-			func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats) {
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			"Add and redefine XML format",
-			[]map[string]any{
-				{
-					"MYOTHERXMLFORMAT": map[string]any{
-						"baseName":  "myotherxml",
-						"mediaType": media.XMLType,
-					},
-				},
-				{
-					"MYOTHERXMLFORMAT": map[string]any{
-						"baseName": "myredefined",
-					},
-				},
-			},
-			false,
-			func(t *testing.T, name string, f Formats) {
-				c.Assert(len(f), qt.Equals, len(DefaultFormats)+1)
-				xml, found := f.GetByName("MYOTHERXMLFORMAT")
-				c.Assert(found, qt.Equals, true)
-				c.Assert(xml.BaseName, qt.Equals, "myredefined")
-				c.Assert(xml.MediaType, qt.Equals, media.XMLType)
-			},
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		result, err := DecodeFormats(mediaTypes, test.maps...)
-		msg := qt.Commentf(test.name)
-
-		if test.shouldError {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil), msg)
-		} else {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil, msg)
-			test.assert(t, test.name, result)
-		}
-	}
-}
-
 func TestSort(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	c.Assert(DefaultFormats[0].Name, qt.Equals, "HTML")
-	c.Assert(DefaultFormats[1].Name, qt.Equals, "AMP")
+	c.Assert(DefaultFormats[0].Name, qt.Equals, "html")
+	c.Assert(DefaultFormats[1].Name, qt.Equals, "amp")
 
 	json := JSONFormat
 	json.Weight = 1
@@ -261,7 +154,7 @@ func TestSort(t *testing.T) {
 
 	sort.Sort(formats)
 
-	c.Assert(formats[0].Name, qt.Equals, "JSON")
-	c.Assert(formats[1].Name, qt.Equals, "HTML")
-	c.Assert(formats[2].Name, qt.Equals, "AMP")
+	c.Assert(formats[0].Name, qt.Equals, "json")
+	c.Assert(formats[1].Name, qt.Equals, "html")
+	c.Assert(formats[2].Name, qt.Equals, "amp")
 }
diff --git a/parser/lowercase_camel_json.go b/parser/lowercase_camel_json.go
index e6605c803..d48aa40c4 100644
--- a/parser/lowercase_camel_json.go
+++ b/parser/lowercase_camel_json.go
@@ -19,6 +19,8 @@ import (
 	"regexp"
 	"unicode"
 	"unicode/utf8"
+
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hreflect"
 )
 
 // Regexp definitions
@@ -57,3 +59,58 @@ func (c LowerCaseCamelJSONMarshaller) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
 
 	return converted, err
 }
+
+type ReplacingJSONMarshaller struct {
+	Value any
+
+	KeysToLower bool
+	OmitEmpty   bool
+}
+
+func (c ReplacingJSONMarshaller) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
+	converted, err := json.Marshal(c.Value)
+
+	if c.KeysToLower {
+		converted = keyMatchRegex.ReplaceAllFunc(
+			converted,
+			func(match []byte) []byte {
+				return bytes.ToLower(match)
+			},
+		)
+	}
+
+	if c.OmitEmpty {
+		// It's tricky to do this with a regexp, so convert it to a map, remove zero values and convert back.
+		var m map[string]interface{}
+		err = json.Unmarshal(converted, &m)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		var removeZeroVAlues func(m map[string]any)
+		removeZeroVAlues = func(m map[string]any) {
+			for k, v := range m {
+				if !hreflect.IsTruthful(v) {
+					delete(m, k)
+				} else {
+					switch v.(type) {
+					case map[string]interface{}:
+						removeZeroVAlues(v.(map[string]any))
+					case []interface{}:
+						for _, vv := range v.([]interface{}) {
+							if m, ok := vv.(map[string]any); ok {
+								removeZeroVAlues(m)
+							}
+						}
+					}
+
+				}
+
+			}
+		}
+		removeZeroVAlues(m)
+		converted, err = json.Marshal(m)
+
+	}
+
+	return converted, err
+}
diff --git a/parser/lowercase_camel_json_test.go b/parser/lowercase_camel_json_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ffbc80295
--- /dev/null
+++ b/parser/lowercase_camel_json_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package parser
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+)
+
+func TestReplacingJSONMarshaller(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
+	m := map[string]any{
+		"foo":        "bar",
+		"baz":        42,
+		"zeroInt1":   0,
+		"zeroInt2":   0,
+		"zeroFloat":  0.0,
+		"zeroString": "",
+		"zeroBool":   false,
+		"nil":        nil,
+	}
+
+	marshaller := ReplacingJSONMarshaller{
+		Value:       m,
+		KeysToLower: true,
+		OmitEmpty:   true,
+	}
+
+	b, err := marshaller.MarshalJSON()
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
+	c.Assert(string(b), qt.Equals, `{"baz":42,"foo":"bar"}`)
+}
diff --git a/parser/metadecoders/format.go b/parser/metadecoders/format.go
index 17e13f467..2e7e6964c 100644
--- a/parser/metadecoders/format.go
+++ b/parser/metadecoders/format.go
@@ -16,8 +16,6 @@ package metadecoders
 import (
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 )
 
 type Format string
@@ -33,6 +31,16 @@ const (
 	XML  Format = "xml"
 )
 
+// FormatFromStrings returns the first non-empty Format from the given strings.
+func FormatFromStrings(ss ...string) Format {
+	for _, s := range ss {
+		if f := FormatFromString(s); f != "" {
+			return f
+		}
+	}
+	return ""
+}
+
 // FormatFromString turns formatStr, typically a file extension without any ".",
 // into a Format. It returns an empty string for unknown formats.
 func FormatFromString(formatStr string) Format {
@@ -59,18 +67,6 @@ func FormatFromString(formatStr string) Format {
 	return ""
 }
 
-// FormatFromMediaType gets the Format given a MIME type, empty string
-// if unknown.
-func FormatFromMediaType(m media.Type) Format {
-	for _, suffix := range m.Suffixes() {
-		if f := FormatFromString(suffix); f != "" {
-			return f
-		}
-	}
-
-	return ""
-}
-
 // FormatFromContentString tries to detect the format (JSON, YAML, TOML or XML)
 // in the given string.
 // It return an empty string if no format could be detected.
diff --git a/parser/metadecoders/format_test.go b/parser/metadecoders/format_test.go
index db33a7d8c..c70db3fb3 100644
--- a/parser/metadecoders/format_test.go
+++ b/parser/metadecoders/format_test.go
@@ -16,8 +16,6 @@ package metadecoders
 import (
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
@@ -41,23 +39,6 @@ func TestFormatFromString(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestFormatFromMediaType(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	for _, test := range []struct {
-		m      media.Type
-		expect Format
-	}{
-		{media.JSONType, JSON},
-		{media.YAMLType, YAML},
-		{media.XMLType, XML},
-		{media.RSSType, XML},
-		{media.TOMLType, TOML},
-		{media.CalendarType, ""},
-	} {
-		c.Assert(FormatFromMediaType(test.m), qt.Equals, test.expect)
-	}
-}
-
 func TestFormatFromContentString(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
diff --git a/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go b/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go
index f9c9424cb..7aeda0daf 100644
--- a/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go
+++ b/publisher/htmlElementsCollector_test.go
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/minifiers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
@@ -141,9 +141,8 @@ func TestClassCollector(t *testing.T) {
 					if skipMinifyTest[test.name] {
 						c.Skip("skip minify test")
 					}
-					v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-					m, _ := minifiers.New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, v)
-					m.Minify(media.HTMLType, w, strings.NewReader(test.html))
+					m, _ := minifiers.New(media.DefaultTypes, output.DefaultFormats, testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, nil))
+					m.Minify(media.Builtin.HTMLType, w, strings.NewReader(test.html))
 
 				} else {
 					var buff bytes.Buffer
diff --git a/publisher/publisher.go b/publisher/publisher.go
index 63eb1011f..970c93e6c 100644
--- a/publisher/publisher.go
+++ b/publisher/publisher.go
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ func NewDestinationPublisher(rs *resources.Spec, outputFormats output.Formats, m
 	fs := rs.BaseFs.PublishFs
 	cfg := rs.Cfg
 	var classCollector *htmlElementsCollector
-	if rs.BuildConfig.WriteStats {
+	if rs.BuildConfig().WriteStats {
 		classCollector = newHTMLElementsCollector()
 	}
 	pub = DestinationPublisher{fs: fs, htmlElementsCollector: classCollector}
diff --git a/related/inverted_index.go b/related/inverted_index.go
index ae894e522..fcebdc716 100644
--- a/related/inverted_index.go
+++ b/related/inverted_index.go
@@ -53,32 +53,15 @@ var (
 	// DefaultConfig is the default related config.
 	DefaultConfig = Config{
 		Threshold: 80,
-		Indices: IndexConfigs{
+		Indices: IndicesConfig{
 			IndexConfig{Name: "keywords", Weight: 100, Type: TypeBasic},
 			IndexConfig{Name: "date", Weight: 10, Type: TypeBasic},
 		},
 	}
 )
 
-/*
-Config is the top level configuration element used to configure how to retrieve
-related content in Hugo.
-
-An example site config.toml:
-
-	[related]
-	threshold = 1
-	[[related.indices]]
-	name = "keywords"
-	weight = 200
-	[[related.indices]]
-	name  = "tags"
-	weight = 100
-	[[related.indices]]
-	name  = "date"
-	weight = 1
-	pattern = "2006"
-*/
+// Config is the top level configuration element used to configure how to retrieve
+// related content in Hugo.
 type Config struct {
 	// Only include matches >= threshold, a normalized rank between 0 and 100.
 	Threshold int
@@ -90,7 +73,7 @@ type Config struct {
 	// May get better results, but at a slight performance cost.
 	ToLower bool
 
-	Indices IndexConfigs
+	Indices IndicesConfig
 }
 
 // Add adds a given index.
@@ -110,8 +93,8 @@ func (c *Config) HasType(s string) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// IndexConfigs holds a set of index configurations.
-type IndexConfigs []IndexConfig
+// IndicesConfig holds a set of index configurations.
+type IndicesConfig []IndexConfig
 
 // IndexConfig configures an index.
 type IndexConfig struct {
@@ -366,13 +349,13 @@ func (idx *InvertedIndex) Search(ctx context.Context, opts SearchOpts) ([]Docume
 
 	var (
 		queryElements []queryElement
-		configs       IndexConfigs
+		configs       IndicesConfig
 	)
 
 	if len(opts.Indices) == 0 {
 		configs = idx.cfg.Indices
 	} else {
-		configs = make(IndexConfigs, len(opts.Indices))
+		configs = make(IndicesConfig, len(opts.Indices))
 		for i, indexName := range opts.Indices {
 			cfg, found := idx.getIndexCfg(indexName)
 			if !found {
@@ -396,12 +379,14 @@ func (idx *InvertedIndex) Search(ctx context.Context, opts SearchOpts) ([]Docume
 				keywords = append(keywords, FragmentKeyword(fragment))
 			}
 			if opts.Document != nil {
+
 				if fp, ok := opts.Document.(FragmentProvider); ok {
 					for _, fragment := range fp.Fragments(ctx).Identifiers {
 						keywords = append(keywords, FragmentKeyword(fragment))
 					}
 				}
 			}
+
 		}
 		queryElements = append(queryElements, newQueryElement(cfg.Name, keywords...))
 	}
@@ -553,6 +538,7 @@ func (idx *InvertedIndex) searchDate(ctx context.Context, self Document, upperDa
 
 	for i, m := range matches {
 		result[i] = m.Doc
+
 		if len(fragmentsFilter) > 0 {
 			if dp, ok := result[i].(FragmentProvider); ok {
 				result[i] = dp.ApplyFilterToHeadings(ctx, func(h *tableofcontents.Heading) bool {
diff --git a/related/inverted_index_test.go b/related/inverted_index_test.go
index c7348e088..72b2f3252 100644
--- a/related/inverted_index_test.go
+++ b/related/inverted_index_test.go
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ func TestCardinalityThreshold(t *testing.T) {
 	config := Config{
 		Threshold:    90,
 		IncludeNewer: false,
-		Indices: IndexConfigs{
+		Indices: IndicesConfig{
 			IndexConfig{Name: "tags", Weight: 50, CardinalityThreshold: 79},
 			IndexConfig{Name: "keywords", Weight: 65, CardinalityThreshold: 90},
 		},
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ func TestSearch(t *testing.T) {
 	config := Config{
 		Threshold:    90,
 		IncludeNewer: false,
-		Indices: IndexConfigs{
+		Indices: IndicesConfig{
 			IndexConfig{Name: "tags", Weight: 50},
 			IndexConfig{Name: "keywords", Weight: 65},
 		},
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ func BenchmarkRelatedNewIndex(b *testing.B) {
 
 	cfg := Config{
 		Threshold: 50,
-		Indices: IndexConfigs{
+		Indices: IndicesConfig{
 			IndexConfig{Name: "tags", Weight: 100},
 			IndexConfig{Name: "keywords", Weight: 200},
 		},
@@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ func BenchmarkRelatedMatchesIn(b *testing.B) {
 
 	cfg := Config{
 		Threshold: 20,
-		Indices: IndexConfigs{
+		Indices: IndicesConfig{
 			IndexConfig{Name: "tags", Weight: 100},
 			IndexConfig{Name: "keywords", Weight: 200},
 		},
diff --git a/resources/assets/sunset.jpg b/resources/assets/sunset.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..7d7307bed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/resources/assets/sunset.jpg
diff --git a/resources/image.go b/resources/image.go
index 6deb0dfe7..c61e903ab 100644
--- a/resources/image.go
+++ b/resources/image.go
@@ -323,7 +323,7 @@ func (i *imageResource) doWithImageConfig(conf images.ImageConfig, f func(src im
 		if shouldFill {
 			bgColor = conf.BgColor
 			if bgColor == nil {
-				bgColor = i.Proc.Cfg.BgColor
+				bgColor = i.Proc.Cfg.Config.BgColor
 			}
 			tmp := image.NewRGBA(converted.Bounds())
 			draw.Draw(tmp, tmp.Bounds(), image.NewUniform(bgColor), image.Point{}, draw.Src)
@@ -380,7 +380,7 @@ func (g *giphy) GIF() *gif.GIF {
 }
 
 // DecodeImage decodes the image source into an Image.
-// This an internal method and may change.
+// This for internal use only.
 func (i *imageResource) DecodeImage() (image.Image, error) {
 	f, err := i.ReadSeekCloser()
 	if err != nil {
@@ -423,7 +423,7 @@ func (i *imageResource) setBasePath(conf images.ImageConfig) {
 func (i *imageResource) getImageMetaCacheTargetPath() string {
 	const imageMetaVersionNumber = 1 // Increment to invalidate the meta cache
 
-	cfgHash := i.getSpec().imaging.Cfg.CfgHash
+	cfgHash := i.getSpec().imaging.Cfg.SourceHash
 	df := i.getResourcePaths().relTargetDirFile
 	if fi := i.getFileInfo(); fi != nil {
 		df.dir = filepath.Dir(fi.Meta().Path)
diff --git a/resources/image_extended_test.go b/resources/image_extended_test.go
index a0b274f3e..4da603fc4 100644
--- a/resources/image_extended_test.go
+++ b/resources/image_extended_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -14,29 +14,28 @@
 //go:build extended
 // +build extended
 
-package resources
+package resources_test
 
 import (
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 )
 
 func TestImageResizeWebP(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	image := fetchImage(c, "sunset.webp")
+	_, image := fetchImage(c, "sunset.webp")
 
-	c.Assert(image.MediaType(), qt.Equals, media.WEBPType)
+	c.Assert(image.MediaType(), qt.Equals, media.Builtin.WEBPType)
 	c.Assert(image.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/sunset.webp")
 	c.Assert(image.ResourceType(), qt.Equals, "image")
 	c.Assert(image.Exif(), qt.IsNil)
 
 	resized, err := image.Resize("123x")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(image.MediaType(), qt.Equals, media.WEBPType)
+	c.Assert(image.MediaType(), qt.Equals, media.Builtin.WEBPType)
 	c.Assert(resized.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/sunset_hu36ee0b61ba924719ad36da960c273f96_59826_123x0_resize_q68_h2_linear_2.webp")
 	c.Assert(resized.Width(), qt.Equals, 123)
 }
diff --git a/resources/image_test.go b/resources/image_test.go
index d401fa783..ca3efb3b3 100644
--- a/resources/image_test.go
+++ b/resources/image_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package resources
+package resources_test
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/images/webp"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
@@ -51,9 +52,6 @@ import (
 )
 
 var eq = qt.CmpEquals(
-	cmp.Comparer(func(p1, p2 *resourceAdapter) bool {
-		return p1.resourceAdapterInner == p2.resourceAdapterInner
-	}),
 	cmp.Comparer(func(p1, p2 os.FileInfo) bool {
 		return p1.Name() == p2.Name() && p1.Size() == p2.Size() && p1.IsDir() == p2.IsDir()
 	}),
@@ -65,9 +63,9 @@ var eq = qt.CmpEquals(
 		}
 		return p1.Name() == p2.Name() && p1.Size() == p2.Size() && p1.IsDir() == p2.IsDir()
 	}),
-	cmp.Comparer(func(p1, p2 *genericResource) bool { return p1 == p2 }),
+	//cmp.Comparer(func(p1, p2 *genericResource) bool { return p1 == p2 }),
 	cmp.Comparer(func(m1, m2 media.Type) bool {
-		return m1.Type() == m2.Type()
+		return m1.Type == m2.Type
 	}),
 	cmp.Comparer(
 		func(v1, v2 *big.Rat) bool {
@@ -82,9 +80,8 @@ var eq = qt.CmpEquals(
 func TestImageTransformBasic(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	image := fetchSunset(c)
-
-	fileCache := image.(specProvider).getSpec().FileCaches.ImageCache().Fs
+	spec, image := fetchSunset(c)
+	fileCache := spec.FileCaches.ImageCache().Fs
 
 	assertWidthHeight := func(img images.ImageResource, w, h int) {
 		c.Helper()
@@ -150,7 +147,7 @@ func TestImageTransformBasic(t *testing.T) {
 	// Check cache
 	filledAgain, err := image.Fill("200x100 bottomLeft")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(filled, eq, filledAgain)
+	c.Assert(filled, qt.Equals, filledAgain)
 
 	cropped, err := image.Crop("300x300 topRight")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -165,16 +162,15 @@ func TestImageTransformBasic(t *testing.T) {
 	// Check cache
 	croppedAgain, err := image.Crop("300x300 topRight")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(cropped, eq, croppedAgain)
+	c.Assert(cropped, qt.Equals, croppedAgain)
 
 }
 
 func TestImageTransformFormat(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	image := fetchSunset(c)
-
-	fileCache := image.(specProvider).getSpec().FileCaches.ImageCache().Fs
+	spec, image := fetchSunset(c)
+	fileCache := spec.FileCaches.ImageCache().Fs
 
 	assertExtWidthHeight := func(img images.ImageResource, ext string, w, h int) {
 		c.Helper()
@@ -259,7 +255,7 @@ func TestImageBugs(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// Issue #4261
 	c.Run("Transform long filename", func(c *qt.C) {
-		image := fetchImage(c, "1234567890qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm5to6eeeeee7via8eleph.jpg")
+		_, image := fetchImage(c, "1234567890qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm5to6eeeeee7via8eleph.jpg")
 		c.Assert(image, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
 		resized, err := image.Resize("200x")
@@ -277,7 +273,7 @@ func TestImageBugs(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// Issue #6137
 	c.Run("Transform upper case extension", func(c *qt.C) {
-		image := fetchImage(c, "sunrise.JPG")
+		_, image := fetchImage(c, "sunrise.JPG")
 
 		resized, err := image.Resize("200x")
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -288,7 +284,7 @@ func TestImageBugs(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// Issue #7955
 	c.Run("Fill with smartcrop", func(c *qt.C) {
-		sunset := fetchImage(c, "sunset.jpg")
+		_, sunset := fetchImage(c, "sunset.jpg")
 
 		for _, test := range []struct {
 			originalDimensions string
@@ -363,7 +359,7 @@ func TestImageTransformConcurrent(t *testing.T) {
 func TestImageWithMetadata(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	image := fetchSunset(c)
+	_, image := fetchSunset(c)
 
 	meta := []map[string]any{
 		{
@@ -373,7 +369,7 @@ func TestImageWithMetadata(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	}
 
-	c.Assert(AssignMetadata(meta, image), qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(resources.AssignMetadata(meta, image), qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(image.Name(), qt.Equals, "Sunset #1")
 
 	resized, err := image.Resize("200x")
@@ -384,16 +380,16 @@ func TestImageWithMetadata(t *testing.T) {
 func TestImageResize8BitPNG(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	image := fetchImage(c, "gohugoio.png")
+	_, image := fetchImage(c, "gohugoio.png")
 
-	c.Assert(image.MediaType().Type(), qt.Equals, "image/png")
+	c.Assert(image.MediaType().Type, qt.Equals, "image/png")
 	c.Assert(image.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/gohugoio.png")
 	c.Assert(image.ResourceType(), qt.Equals, "image")
 	c.Assert(image.Exif(), qt.IsNil)
 
 	resized, err := image.Resize("800x")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(resized.MediaType().Type(), qt.Equals, "image/png")
+	c.Assert(resized.MediaType().Type, qt.Equals, "image/png")
 	c.Assert(resized.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/gohugoio_hu0e1b9e4a4be4d6f86c7b37b9ccce3fbc_73886_800x0_resize_linear_3.png")
 	c.Assert(resized.Width(), qt.Equals, 800)
 }
@@ -401,35 +397,33 @@ func TestImageResize8BitPNG(t *testing.T) {
 func TestImageResizeInSubPath(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	image := fetchImage(c, "sub/gohugoio2.png")
+	spec, image := fetchImage(c, "sub/gohugoio2.png")
 
-	c.Assert(image.MediaType(), eq, media.PNGType)
+	c.Assert(image.MediaType(), eq, media.Builtin.PNGType)
 	c.Assert(image.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/sub/gohugoio2.png")
 	c.Assert(image.ResourceType(), qt.Equals, "image")
 	c.Assert(image.Exif(), qt.IsNil)
 
 	resized, err := image.Resize("101x101")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(resized.MediaType().Type(), qt.Equals, "image/png")
+	c.Assert(resized.MediaType().Type, qt.Equals, "image/png")
 	c.Assert(resized.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/sub/gohugoio2_hu0e1b9e4a4be4d6f86c7b37b9ccce3fbc_73886_101x101_resize_linear_3.png")
 	c.Assert(resized.Width(), qt.Equals, 101)
 	c.Assert(resized.Exif(), qt.IsNil)
 
 	publishedImageFilename := filepath.Clean(resized.RelPermalink())
 
-	spec := image.(specProvider).getSpec()
-
 	assertImageFile(c, spec.BaseFs.PublishFs, publishedImageFilename, 101, 101)
 	c.Assert(spec.BaseFs.PublishFs.Remove(publishedImageFilename), qt.IsNil)
 
 	// Clear mem cache to simulate reading from the file cache.
-	spec.imageCache.clear()
+	spec.ClearCaches()
 
 	resizedAgain, err := image.Resize("101x101")
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(resizedAgain.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/sub/gohugoio2_hu0e1b9e4a4be4d6f86c7b37b9ccce3fbc_73886_101x101_resize_linear_3.png")
 	c.Assert(resizedAgain.Width(), qt.Equals, 101)
-	assertImageFile(c, image.(specProvider).getSpec().BaseFs.PublishFs, publishedImageFilename, 101, 101)
+	assertImageFile(c, spec.BaseFs.PublishFs, publishedImageFilename, 101, 101)
 }
 
 func TestSVGImage(t *testing.T) {
@@ -840,7 +834,7 @@ func assetGoldenDirs(c *qt.C, dir1, dir2 string) {
 
 func BenchmarkResizeParallel(b *testing.B) {
 	c := qt.New(b)
-	img := fetchSunset(c)
+	_, img := fetchSunset(c)
 
 	b.RunParallel(func(pb *testing.PB) {
 		for pb.Next() {
diff --git a/resources/images/config.go b/resources/images/config.go
index 09a7016c1..a3ca0c359 100644
--- a/resources/images/config.go
+++ b/resources/images/config.go
@@ -19,16 +19,16 @@ import (
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 
 	"errors"
 
 	"github.com/bep/gowebp/libwebp/webpoptions"
 
 	"github.com/disintegration/gift"
-
-	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 )
 
 var (
@@ -47,12 +47,12 @@ var (
 	}
 
 	imageFormatsBySubType = map[string]Format{
-		media.JPEGType.SubType: JPEG,
-		media.PNGType.SubType:  PNG,
-		media.TIFFType.SubType: TIFF,
-		media.BMPType.SubType:  BMP,
-		media.GIFType.SubType:  GIF,
-		media.WEBPType.SubType: WEBP,
+		media.Builtin.JPEGType.SubType: JPEG,
+		media.Builtin.PNGType.SubType:  PNG,
+		media.Builtin.TIFFType.SubType: TIFF,
+		media.Builtin.BMPType.SubType:  BMP,
+		media.Builtin.GIFType.SubType:  GIF,
+		media.Builtin.WEBPType.SubType: WEBP,
 	}
 
 	// Add or increment if changes to an image format's processing requires
@@ -121,66 +121,83 @@ func ImageFormatFromMediaSubType(sub string) (Format, bool) {
 const (
 	defaultJPEGQuality    = 75
 	defaultResampleFilter = "box"
-	defaultBgColor        = "ffffff"
+	defaultBgColor        = "#ffffff"
 	defaultHint           = "photo"
 )
 
-var defaultImaging = Imaging{
-	ResampleFilter: defaultResampleFilter,
-	BgColor:        defaultBgColor,
-	Hint:           defaultHint,
-	Quality:        defaultJPEGQuality,
-}
-
-func DecodeConfig(m map[string]any) (ImagingConfig, error) {
-	if m == nil {
-		m = make(map[string]any)
+var (
+	defaultImaging = map[string]any{
+		"resampleFilter": defaultResampleFilter,
+		"bgColor":        defaultBgColor,
+		"hint":           defaultHint,
+		"quality":        defaultJPEGQuality,
 	}
 
-	i := ImagingConfig{
-		Cfg:     defaultImaging,
-		CfgHash: identity.HashString(m),
-	}
+	defaultImageConfig *config.ConfigNamespace[ImagingConfig, ImagingConfigInternal]
+)
 
-	if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(m, &i.Cfg); err != nil {
-		return i, err
+func init() {
+	var err error
+	defaultImageConfig, err = DecodeConfig(defaultImaging)
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
 	}
+}
 
-	if err := i.Cfg.init(); err != nil {
-		return i, err
+func DecodeConfig(in map[string]any) (*config.ConfigNamespace[ImagingConfig, ImagingConfigInternal], error) {
+	if in == nil {
+		in = make(map[string]any)
 	}
 
-	var err error
-	i.BgColor, err = hexStringToColor(i.Cfg.BgColor)
-	if err != nil {
-		return i, err
-	}
+	buildConfig := func(in any) (ImagingConfigInternal, any, error) {
+		m, err := maps.ToStringMapE(in)
+		if err != nil {
+			return ImagingConfigInternal{}, nil, err
+		}
+		// Merge in the defaults.
+		maps.MergeShallow(m, defaultImaging)
+
+		var i ImagingConfigInternal
+		if err := mapstructure.Decode(m, &i.Imaging); err != nil {
+			return i, nil, err
+		}
+
+		if err := i.Imaging.init(); err != nil {
+			return i, nil, err
+		}
+
+		i.BgColor, err = hexStringToColor(i.Imaging.BgColor)
+		if err != nil {
+			return i, nil, err
+		}
 
-	if i.Cfg.Anchor != "" && i.Cfg.Anchor != smartCropIdentifier {
-		anchor, found := anchorPositions[i.Cfg.Anchor]
+		if i.Imaging.Anchor != "" && i.Imaging.Anchor != smartCropIdentifier {
+			anchor, found := anchorPositions[i.Imaging.Anchor]
+			if !found {
+				return i, nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid anchor value %q in imaging config", i.Anchor)
+			}
+			i.Anchor = anchor
+		}
+
+		filter, found := imageFilters[i.Imaging.ResampleFilter]
 		if !found {
-			return i, fmt.Errorf("invalid anchor value %q in imaging config", i.Anchor)
+			return i, nil, fmt.Errorf("%q is not a valid resample filter", filter)
 		}
-		i.Anchor = anchor
-	} else {
-		i.Cfg.Anchor = smartCropIdentifier
-	}
 
-	filter, found := imageFilters[i.Cfg.ResampleFilter]
-	if !found {
-		return i, fmt.Errorf("%q is not a valid resample filter", filter)
+		i.ResampleFilter = filter
+
+		return i, nil, nil
 	}
-	i.ResampleFilter = filter
 
-	if strings.TrimSpace(i.Cfg.Exif.IncludeFields) == "" && strings.TrimSpace(i.Cfg.Exif.ExcludeFields) == "" {
-		// Don't change this for no good reason. Please don't.
-		i.Cfg.Exif.ExcludeFields = "GPS|Exif|Exposure[M|P|B]|Contrast|Resolution|Sharp|JPEG|Metering|Sensing|Saturation|ColorSpace|Flash|WhiteBalance"
+	ns, err := config.DecodeNamespace[ImagingConfig](in, buildConfig)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to decode media types: %w", err)
 	}
+	return ns, nil
 
-	return i, nil
 }
 
-func DecodeImageConfig(action, config string, defaults ImagingConfig, sourceFormat Format) (ImageConfig, error) {
+func DecodeImageConfig(action, config string, defaults *config.ConfigNamespace[ImagingConfig, ImagingConfigInternal], sourceFormat Format) (ImageConfig, error) {
 	var (
 		c   ImageConfig = GetDefaultImageConfig(action, defaults)
 		err error
@@ -268,8 +285,8 @@ func DecodeImageConfig(action, config string, defaults ImagingConfig, sourceForm
 	}
 
 	if c.FilterStr == "" {
-		c.FilterStr = defaults.Cfg.ResampleFilter
-		c.Filter = defaults.ResampleFilter
+		c.FilterStr = defaults.Config.Imaging.ResampleFilter
+		c.Filter = defaults.Config.ResampleFilter
 	}
 
 	if c.Hint == 0 {
@@ -277,8 +294,8 @@ func DecodeImageConfig(action, config string, defaults ImagingConfig, sourceForm
 	}
 
 	if c.AnchorStr == "" {
-		c.AnchorStr = defaults.Cfg.Anchor
-		c.Anchor = defaults.Anchor
+		c.AnchorStr = defaults.Config.Imaging.Anchor
+		c.Anchor = defaults.Config.Anchor
 	}
 
 	// default to the source format
@@ -288,13 +305,13 @@ func DecodeImageConfig(action, config string, defaults ImagingConfig, sourceForm
 
 	if c.Quality <= 0 && c.TargetFormat.RequiresDefaultQuality() {
 		// We need a quality setting for all JPEGs and WEBPs.
-		c.Quality = defaults.Cfg.Quality
+		c.Quality = defaults.Config.Imaging.Quality
 	}
 
 	if c.BgColor == nil && c.TargetFormat != sourceFormat {
 		if sourceFormat.SupportsTransparency() && !c.TargetFormat.SupportsTransparency() {
-			c.BgColor = defaults.BgColor
-			c.BgColorStr = defaults.Cfg.BgColor
+			c.BgColor = defaults.Config.BgColor
+			c.BgColorStr = defaults.Config.Imaging.BgColor
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -389,22 +406,43 @@ func (i ImageConfig) GetKey(format Format) string {
 	return k
 }
 
-type ImagingConfig struct {
+type ImagingConfigInternal struct {
 	BgColor        color.Color
 	Hint           webpoptions.EncodingPreset
 	ResampleFilter gift.Resampling
 	Anchor         gift.Anchor
 
-	// Config as provided by the user.
-	Cfg Imaging
+	Imaging ImagingConfig
+}
+
+func (i *ImagingConfigInternal) Compile(externalCfg *ImagingConfig) error {
+	var err error
+	i.BgColor, err = hexStringToColor(externalCfg.BgColor)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	if externalCfg.Anchor != "" && externalCfg.Anchor != smartCropIdentifier {
+		anchor, found := anchorPositions[externalCfg.Anchor]
+		if !found {
+			return fmt.Errorf("invalid anchor value %q in imaging config", i.Anchor)
+		}
+		i.Anchor = anchor
+	}
+
+	filter, found := imageFilters[externalCfg.ResampleFilter]
+	if !found {
+		return fmt.Errorf("%q is not a valid resample filter", filter)
+	}
+	i.ResampleFilter = filter
+
+	return nil
 
-	// Hash of the config map provided by the user.
-	CfgHash string
 }
 
-// Imaging contains default image processing configuration. This will be fetched
+// ImagingConfig contains default image processing configuration. This will be fetched
 // from site (or language) config.
-type Imaging struct {
+type ImagingConfig struct {
 	// Default image quality setting (1-100). Only used for JPEG images.
 	Quality int
 
@@ -426,7 +464,7 @@ type Imaging struct {
 	Exif ExifConfig
 }
 
-func (cfg *Imaging) init() error {
+func (cfg *ImagingConfig) init() error {
 	if cfg.Quality < 0 || cfg.Quality > 100 {
 		return errors.New("image quality must be a number between 1 and 100")
 	}
@@ -436,6 +474,15 @@ func (cfg *Imaging) init() error {
 	cfg.ResampleFilter = strings.ToLower(cfg.ResampleFilter)
 	cfg.Hint = strings.ToLower(cfg.Hint)
 
+	if cfg.Anchor == "" {
+		cfg.Anchor = smartCropIdentifier
+	}
+
+	if strings.TrimSpace(cfg.Exif.IncludeFields) == "" && strings.TrimSpace(cfg.Exif.ExcludeFields) == "" {
+		// Don't change this for no good reason. Please don't.
+		cfg.Exif.ExcludeFields = "GPS|Exif|Exposure[M|P|B]|Contrast|Resolution|Sharp|JPEG|Metering|Sensing|Saturation|ColorSpace|Flash|WhiteBalance"
+	}
+
 	return nil
 }
 
diff --git a/resources/images/config_test.go b/resources/images/config_test.go
index 1b785f7ca..2e0d6635d 100644
--- a/resources/images/config_test.go
+++ b/resources/images/config_test.go
@@ -32,18 +32,18 @@ func TestDecodeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	imagingConfig, err := DecodeConfig(m)
 
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	imaging := imagingConfig.Cfg
-	c.Assert(imaging.Quality, qt.Equals, 42)
-	c.Assert(imaging.ResampleFilter, qt.Equals, "nearestneighbor")
-	c.Assert(imaging.Anchor, qt.Equals, "topleft")
+	conf := imagingConfig.Config
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.Quality, qt.Equals, 42)
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.ResampleFilter, qt.Equals, "nearestneighbor")
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.Anchor, qt.Equals, "topleft")
 
 	m = map[string]any{}
 
 	imagingConfig, err = DecodeConfig(m)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	imaging = imagingConfig.Cfg
-	c.Assert(imaging.ResampleFilter, qt.Equals, "box")
-	c.Assert(imaging.Anchor, qt.Equals, "smart")
+	conf = imagingConfig.Config
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.ResampleFilter, qt.Equals, "box")
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.Anchor, qt.Equals, "smart")
 
 	_, err = DecodeConfig(map[string]any{
 		"quality": 123,
@@ -63,9 +63,9 @@ func TestDecodeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	imagingConfig, err = DecodeConfig(map[string]any{
 		"anchor": "Smart",
 	})
-	imaging = imagingConfig.Cfg
+	conf = imagingConfig.Config
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(imaging.Anchor, qt.Equals, "smart")
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.Anchor, qt.Equals, "smart")
 
 	imagingConfig, err = DecodeConfig(map[string]any{
 		"exif": map[string]any{
@@ -73,9 +73,9 @@ func TestDecodeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	imaging = imagingConfig.Cfg
-	c.Assert(imaging.Exif.DisableLatLong, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(imaging.Exif.ExcludeFields, qt.Equals, "GPS|Exif|Exposure[M|P|B]|Contrast|Resolution|Sharp|JPEG|Metering|Sensing|Saturation|ColorSpace|Flash|WhiteBalance")
+	conf = imagingConfig.Config
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.Exif.DisableLatLong, qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(conf.Imaging.Exif.ExcludeFields, qt.Equals, "GPS|Exif|Exposure[M|P|B]|Contrast|Resolution|Sharp|JPEG|Metering|Sensing|Saturation|ColorSpace|Flash|WhiteBalance")
 }
 
 func TestDecodeImageConfig(t *testing.T) {
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ func TestDecodeImageConfig(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func newImageConfig(action string, width, height, quality, rotate int, filter, anchor, bgColor string) ImageConfig {
-	var c ImageConfig = GetDefaultImageConfig(action, ImagingConfig{})
+	var c ImageConfig = GetDefaultImageConfig(action, nil)
 	c.TargetFormat = PNG
 	c.Hint = 2
 	c.Width = width
diff --git a/resources/images/image.go b/resources/images/image.go
index 9dc8ed408..530057d80 100644
--- a/resources/images/image.go
+++ b/resources/images/image.go
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@ import (
 	"sync"
 
 	"github.com/bep/gowebp/libwebp/webpoptions"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/images/webp"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
@@ -174,8 +175,8 @@ func (i *Image) initConfig() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func NewImageProcessor(cfg ImagingConfig) (*ImageProcessor, error) {
-	e := cfg.Cfg.Exif
+func NewImageProcessor(cfg *config.ConfigNamespace[ImagingConfig, ImagingConfigInternal]) (*ImageProcessor, error) {
+	e := cfg.Config.Imaging.Exif
 	exifDecoder, err := exif.NewDecoder(
 		exif.WithDateDisabled(e.DisableDate),
 		exif.WithLatLongDisabled(e.DisableLatLong),
@@ -193,7 +194,7 @@ func NewImageProcessor(cfg ImagingConfig) (*ImageProcessor, error) {
 }
 
 type ImageProcessor struct {
-	Cfg         ImagingConfig
+	Cfg         *config.ConfigNamespace[ImagingConfig, ImagingConfigInternal]
 	exifDecoder *exif.Decoder
 }
 
@@ -304,11 +305,14 @@ func (p *ImageProcessor) doFilter(src image.Image, targetFormat Format, filters
 	return dst, nil
 }
 
-func GetDefaultImageConfig(action string, defaults ImagingConfig) ImageConfig {
+func GetDefaultImageConfig(action string, defaults *config.ConfigNamespace[ImagingConfig, ImagingConfigInternal]) ImageConfig {
+	if defaults == nil {
+		defaults = defaultImageConfig
+	}
 	return ImageConfig{
 		Action:  action,
-		Hint:    defaults.Hint,
-		Quality: defaults.Cfg.Quality,
+		Hint:    defaults.Config.Hint,
+		Quality: defaults.Config.Imaging.Quality,
 	}
 }
 
@@ -350,17 +354,17 @@ func (f Format) DefaultExtension() string {
 func (f Format) MediaType() media.Type {
 	switch f {
 	case JPEG:
-		return media.JPEGType
+		return media.Builtin.JPEGType
 	case PNG:
-		return media.PNGType
+		return media.Builtin.PNGType
 	case GIF:
-		return media.GIFType
+		return media.Builtin.GIFType
 	case TIFF:
-		return media.TIFFType
+		return media.Builtin.TIFFType
 	case BMP:
-		return media.BMPType
+		return media.Builtin.BMPType
 	case WEBP:
-		return media.WEBPType
+		return media.Builtin.WEBPType
 	default:
 		panic(fmt.Sprintf("%d is not a valid image format", f))
 	}
diff --git a/resources/images/image_resource.go b/resources/images/image_resource.go
index 846959006..dcd2b4741 100644
--- a/resources/images/image_resource.go
+++ b/resources/images/image_resource.go
@@ -62,6 +62,6 @@ type ImageResourceOps interface {
 	// using a simple histogram method.
 	Colors() ([]string, error)
 
-	// Internal
+	// For internal use.
 	DecodeImage() (image.Image, error)
 }
diff --git a/resources/page/page.go b/resources/page/page.go
index 6f6f1d100..1ec56e8cf 100644
--- a/resources/page/page.go
+++ b/resources/page/page.go
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ type OutputFormatsProvider interface {
 	OutputFormats() OutputFormats
 }
 
-// Page is the core interface in Hugo.
+// Page is the core interface in Hugo and what you get as the top level data context in your templates.
 type Page interface {
 	ContentProvider
 	TableOfContentsProvider
@@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ type PageMetaProvider interface {
 
 	// Sitemap returns the sitemap configuration for this page.
 	// This is for internal use only.
-	Sitemap() config.Sitemap
+	Sitemap() config.SitemapConfig
 
 	// Type is a discriminator used to select layouts etc. It is typically set
 	// in front matter, but will fall back to the root section.
diff --git a/resources/page/page_marshaljson.autogen.go b/resources/page/page_marshaljson.autogen.go
index c3524ec36..bc9b5cc0f 100644
--- a/resources/page/page_marshaljson.autogen.go
+++ b/resources/page/page_marshaljson.autogen.go
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ func MarshalPageToJSON(p Page) ([]byte, error) {
 		Section                  string
 		SectionsEntries          []string
 		SectionsPath             string
-		Sitemap                  config.Sitemap
+		Sitemap                  config.SitemapConfig
 		Type                     string
 		Weight                   int
 		Language                 *langs.Language
diff --git a/resources/page/page_matcher.go b/resources/page/page_matcher.go
index c302ff21a..a2b327f61 100644
--- a/resources/page/page_matcher.go
+++ b/resources/page/page_matcher.go
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
 	"github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure"
 )
@@ -80,43 +81,90 @@ func (m PageMatcher) Matches(p Page) bool {
 	return true
 }
 
-// DecodeCascade decodes in which could be either a map or a slice of maps.
-func DecodeCascade(in any) (map[PageMatcher]maps.Params, error) {
-	m, err := maps.ToSliceStringMap(in)
-	if err != nil {
-		return map[PageMatcher]maps.Params{
-			{}: maps.ToStringMap(in),
-		}, nil
-	}
+func DecodeCascadeConfig(in any) (*config.ConfigNamespace[[]PageMatcherParamsConfig, map[PageMatcher]maps.Params], error) {
+	buildConfig := func(in any) (map[PageMatcher]maps.Params, any, error) {
+		cascade := make(map[PageMatcher]maps.Params)
+		if in == nil {
+			return cascade, []map[string]any{}, nil
+		}
+		ms, err := maps.ToSliceStringMap(in)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, nil, err
+		}
 
-	cascade := make(map[PageMatcher]maps.Params)
+		var cfgs []PageMatcherParamsConfig
 
-	for _, vv := range m {
-		var m PageMatcher
-		if mv, found := vv["_target"]; found {
-			err := DecodePageMatcher(mv, &m)
+		for _, m := range ms {
+			m = maps.CleanConfigStringMap(m)
+			c, err := mapToPageMatcherParamsConfig(m)
 			if err != nil {
-				return nil, err
+				return nil, nil, err
 			}
+			cfgs = append(cfgs, c)
 		}
-		c, found := cascade[m]
-		if found {
-			// Merge
-			for k, v := range vv {
-				if _, found := c[k]; !found {
-					c[k] = v
+
+		for _, cfg := range cfgs {
+			m := cfg.Target
+			c, found := cascade[m]
+			if found {
+				// Merge
+				for k, v := range cfg.Params {
+					if _, found := c[k]; !found {
+						c[k] = v
+					}
 				}
+			} else {
+				cascade[m] = cfg.Params
 			}
-		} else {
-			cascade[m] = vv
 		}
+
+		return cascade, cfgs, nil
 	}
 
-	return cascade, nil
+	return config.DecodeNamespace[[]PageMatcherParamsConfig](in, buildConfig)
+
 }
 
-// DecodePageMatcher decodes m into v.
-func DecodePageMatcher(m any, v *PageMatcher) error {
+// DecodeCascade decodes in which could be either a map or a slice of maps.
+func DecodeCascade(in any) (map[PageMatcher]maps.Params, error) {
+	conf, err := DecodeCascadeConfig(in)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return conf.Config, nil
+}
+
+func mapToPageMatcherParamsConfig(m map[string]any) (PageMatcherParamsConfig, error) {
+	var pcfg PageMatcherParamsConfig
+	for k, v := range m {
+		switch strings.ToLower(k) {
+		case "params":
+			// We simplified the structure of the cascade config in Hugo 0.111.0.
+			// There is a small chance that someone has used the old structure with the params keyword,
+			// those values will now be moved to the top level.
+			// This should be very unlikely as it would lead to constructs like .Params.params.foo,
+			// and most people see params as an Hugo internal keyword.
+			pcfg.Params = maps.ToStringMap(v)
+		case "_target", "target":
+			var target PageMatcher
+			if err := decodePageMatcher(v, &target); err != nil {
+				return pcfg, err
+			}
+			pcfg.Target = target
+		default:
+			// Legacy config.
+			if pcfg.Params == nil {
+				pcfg.Params = make(maps.Params)
+			}
+			pcfg.Params[k] = v
+		}
+	}
+	return pcfg, pcfg.init()
+
+}
+
+// decodePageMatcher decodes m into v.
+func decodePageMatcher(m any, v *PageMatcher) error {
 	if err := mapstructure.WeakDecode(m, v); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -140,3 +188,14 @@ func DecodePageMatcher(m any, v *PageMatcher) error {
 
 	return nil
 }
+
+type PageMatcherParamsConfig struct {
+	// Apply Params to all Pages matching Target.
+	Params maps.Params
+	Target PageMatcher
+}
+
+func (p *PageMatcherParamsConfig) init() error {
+	maps.PrepareParams(p.Params)
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/resources/page/page_matcher_test.go b/resources/page/page_matcher_test.go
index 4a59dc502..990312ed1 100644
--- a/resources/page/page_matcher_test.go
+++ b/resources/page/page_matcher_test.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hugo"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
@@ -71,13 +72,87 @@ func TestPageMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 
 	c.Run("Decode", func(c *qt.C) {
 		var v PageMatcher
-		c.Assert(DecodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "foo"}, &v), qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		c.Assert(DecodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "{foo,bar}"}, &v), qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		c.Assert(DecodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "taxonomy"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(DecodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "{taxonomy,foo}"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(DecodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "{taxonomy,term}"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(DecodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "*"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(DecodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "home", "path": filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/**")}, &v), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(decodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "foo"}, &v), qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+		c.Assert(decodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "{foo,bar}"}, &v), qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
+		c.Assert(decodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "taxonomy"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(decodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "{taxonomy,foo}"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(decodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "{taxonomy,term}"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(decodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "*"}, &v), qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(decodePageMatcher(map[string]any{"kind": "home", "path": filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/**")}, &v), qt.IsNil)
 		c.Assert(v, qt.Equals, PageMatcher{Kind: "home", Path: "/a/b/**"})
 	})
+
+	c.Run("mapToPageMatcherParamsConfig", func(c *qt.C) {
+		fn := func(m map[string]any) PageMatcherParamsConfig {
+			v, err := mapToPageMatcherParamsConfig(m)
+			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+			return v
+		}
+		// Legacy.
+		c.Assert(fn(map[string]any{"_target": map[string]any{"kind": "page"}, "foo": "bar"}), qt.DeepEquals, PageMatcherParamsConfig{
+			Params: maps.Params{
+				"foo": "bar",
+			},
+			Target: PageMatcher{Path: "", Kind: "page", Lang: "", Environment: ""},
+		})
+
+		// Current format.
+		c.Assert(fn(map[string]any{"target": map[string]any{"kind": "page"}, "params": map[string]any{"foo": "bar"}}), qt.DeepEquals, PageMatcherParamsConfig{
+			Params: maps.Params{
+				"foo": "bar",
+			},
+			Target: PageMatcher{Path: "", Kind: "page", Lang: "", Environment: ""},
+		})
+	})
+}
+
+func TestDecodeCascadeConfig(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
+	in := []map[string]any{
+		{
+			"params": map[string]any{
+				"a": "av",
+			},
+			"target": map[string]any{
+				"kind":        "page",
+				"Environment": "production",
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"params": map[string]any{
+				"b": "bv",
+			},
+			"target": map[string]any{
+				"kind": "page",
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	got, err := DecodeCascadeConfig(in)
+
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(got, qt.IsNotNil)
+	c.Assert(got.Config, qt.DeepEquals,
+		map[PageMatcher]maps.Params{
+			{Path: "", Kind: "page", Lang: "", Environment: ""}: {
+				"b": "bv",
+			},
+			{Path: "", Kind: "page", Lang: "", Environment: "production"}: {
+				"a": "av",
+			},
+		},
+	)
+	c.Assert(got.SourceStructure, qt.DeepEquals, []PageMatcherParamsConfig{
+		{
+			Params: maps.Params{"a": string("av")},
+			Target: PageMatcher{Kind: "page", Environment: "production"},
+		},
+		{Params: maps.Params{"b": string("bv")}, Target: PageMatcher{Kind: "page"}},
+	})
+
+	got, err = DecodeCascadeConfig(nil)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	c.Assert(got, qt.IsNotNil)
+
 }
diff --git a/resources/page/page_nop.go b/resources/page/page_nop.go
index c04c019fe..59765ebf2 100644
--- a/resources/page/page_nop.go
+++ b/resources/page/page_nop.go
@@ -67,8 +67,8 @@ func (p *nopPage) Aliases() []string {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (p *nopPage) Sitemap() config.Sitemap {
-	return config.Sitemap{}
+func (p *nopPage) Sitemap() config.SitemapConfig {
+	return config.SitemapConfig{}
 }
 
 func (p *nopPage) Layout() string {
@@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ func (p *nopPage) HasShortcode(name string) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-func (p *nopPage) Hugo() (h hugo.Info) {
+func (p *nopPage) Hugo() (h hugo.HugoInfo) {
 	return
 }
 
diff --git a/resources/page/page_paths.go b/resources/page/page_paths.go
index 8c718fd77..0ed758ca1 100644
--- a/resources/page/page_paths.go
+++ b/resources/page/page_paths.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/urls"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 )
@@ -91,18 +92,18 @@ func (p TargetPaths) RelPermalink(s *helpers.PathSpec) string {
 }
 
 func (p TargetPaths) PermalinkForOutputFormat(s *helpers.PathSpec, f output.Format) string {
-	var baseURL string
+	var baseURL urls.BaseURL
 	var err error
 	if f.Protocol != "" {
-		baseURL, err = s.BaseURL.WithProtocol(f.Protocol)
+		baseURL, err = s.Cfg.BaseURL().WithProtocol(f.Protocol)
 		if err != nil {
 			return ""
 		}
 	} else {
-		baseURL = s.BaseURL.String()
+		baseURL = s.Cfg.BaseURL()
 	}
-
-	return s.PermalinkForBaseURL(p.Link, baseURL)
+	baseURLstr := baseURL.String()
+	return s.PermalinkForBaseURL(p.Link, baseURLstr)
 }
 
 func isHtmlIndex(s string) bool {
diff --git a/resources/page/page_paths_test.go b/resources/page/page_paths_test.go
index 28937899f..137f3bec3 100644
--- a/resources/page/page_paths_test.go
+++ b/resources/page/page_paths_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package page
+package page_test
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 )
@@ -27,7 +28,7 @@ import (
 func TestPageTargetPath(t *testing.T) {
 	pathSpec := newTestPathSpec()
 
-	noExtNoDelimMediaType := media.WithDelimiterAndSuffixes(media.TextType, "", "")
+	noExtNoDelimMediaType := media.WithDelimiterAndSuffixes(media.Builtin.TextType, "", "")
 	noExtNoDelimMediaType.Delimiter = ""
 
 	// Netlify style _redirects
@@ -43,152 +44,152 @@ func TestPageTargetPath(t *testing.T) {
 
 				tests := []struct {
 					name     string
-					d        TargetPathDescriptor
-					expected TargetPaths
+					d        page.TargetPathDescriptor
+					expected page.TargetPaths
 				}{
-					{"JSON home", TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindHome, Type: output.JSONFormat}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/index.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/index.json"}},
-					{"AMP home", TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindHome, Type: output.AMPFormat}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/amp/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/amp", Link: "/amp/"}},
-					{"HTML home", TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindHome, BaseName: "_index", Type: output.HTMLFormat}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/"}},
-					{"Netlify redirects", TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindHome, BaseName: "_index", Type: noExtDelimFormat}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/_redirects", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/_redirects"}},
-					{"HTML section list", TargetPathDescriptor{
-						Kind:     KindSection,
+					{"JSON home", page.TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: page.KindHome, Type: output.JSONFormat}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/index.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/index.json"}},
+					{"AMP home", page.TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: page.KindHome, Type: output.AMPFormat}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/amp/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/amp", Link: "/amp/"}},
+					{"HTML home", page.TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: page.KindHome, BaseName: "_index", Type: output.HTMLFormat}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/"}},
+					{"Netlify redirects", page.TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: page.KindHome, BaseName: "_index", Type: noExtDelimFormat}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/_redirects", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/_redirects"}},
+					{"HTML section list", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+						Kind:     page.KindSection,
 						Sections: []string{"sect1"},
 						BaseName: "_index",
 						Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-					}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/sect1/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/sect1", Link: "/sect1/"}},
-					{"HTML taxonomy term", TargetPathDescriptor{
-						Kind:     KindTerm,
+					}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/sect1/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/sect1", Link: "/sect1/"}},
+					{"HTML taxonomy term", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+						Kind:     page.KindTerm,
 						Sections: []string{"tags", "hugo"},
 						BaseName: "_index",
 						Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-					}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/tags/hugo/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/tags/hugo", Link: "/tags/hugo/"}},
-					{"HTML taxonomy", TargetPathDescriptor{
-						Kind:     KindTaxonomy,
+					}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/tags/hugo/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/tags/hugo", Link: "/tags/hugo/"}},
+					{"HTML taxonomy", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+						Kind:     page.KindTaxonomy,
 						Sections: []string{"tags"},
 						BaseName: "_index",
 						Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-					}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/tags/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/tags", Link: "/tags/"}},
+					}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/tags/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/tags", Link: "/tags/"}},
 					{
-						"HTML page", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"HTML page", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/a/b",
 							BaseName: "mypage",
 							Sections: []string{"a"},
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/mypage/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b/mypage", Link: "/a/b/mypage/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/mypage/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b/mypage", Link: "/a/b/mypage/"},
 					},
 
 					{
-						"HTML page with index as base", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"HTML page with index as base", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/a/b",
 							BaseName: "index",
 							Sections: []string{"a"},
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b", Link: "/a/b/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b", Link: "/a/b/"},
 					},
 
 					{
-						"HTML page with special chars", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"HTML page with special chars", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/a/b",
 							BaseName: "My Page!",
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/my-page/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b/my-page", Link: "/a/b/my-page/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/my-page/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b/my-page", Link: "/a/b/my-page/"},
 					},
-					{"RSS home", TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: "rss", Type: output.RSSFormat}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/index.xml", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/index.xml"}},
-					{"RSS section list", TargetPathDescriptor{
+					{"RSS home", page.TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: "rss", Type: output.RSSFormat}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/index.xml", SubResourceBaseTarget: "", Link: "/index.xml"}},
+					{"RSS section list", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
 						Kind:     "rss",
 						Sections: []string{"sect1"},
 						Type:     output.RSSFormat,
-					}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/sect1/index.xml", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/sect1", Link: "/sect1/index.xml"}},
+					}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/sect1/index.xml", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/sect1", Link: "/sect1/index.xml"}},
 					{
-						"AMP page", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"AMP page", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/a/b/c",
 							BaseName: "myamp",
 							Type:     output.AMPFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/amp/a/b/c/myamp/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/amp/a/b/c/myamp", Link: "/amp/a/b/c/myamp/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/amp/a/b/c/myamp/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/amp/a/b/c/myamp", Link: "/amp/a/b/c/myamp/"},
 					},
 					{
-						"AMP page with URL with suffix", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"AMP page with URL with suffix", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/sect/",
 							BaseName: "mypage",
 							URL:      "/some/other/url.xhtml",
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/url.xhtml", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other", Link: "/some/other/url.xhtml"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/url.xhtml", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other", Link: "/some/other/url.xhtml"},
 					},
 					{
-						"JSON page with URL without suffix", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"JSON page with URL without suffix", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/sect/",
 							BaseName: "mypage",
 							URL:      "/some/other/path/",
 							Type:     output.JSONFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/path/index.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other/path", Link: "/some/other/path/index.json"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/path/index.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other/path", Link: "/some/other/path/index.json"},
 					},
 					{
-						"JSON page with URL without suffix and no trailing slash", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"JSON page with URL without suffix and no trailing slash", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/sect/",
 							BaseName: "mypage",
 							URL:      "/some/other/path",
 							Type:     output.JSONFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/path/index.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other/path", Link: "/some/other/path/index.json"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/path/index.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other/path", Link: "/some/other/path/index.json"},
 					},
 					{
-						"HTML page with URL without suffix and no trailing slash", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"HTML page with URL without suffix and no trailing slash", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/sect/",
 							BaseName: "mypage",
 							URL:      "/some/other/path",
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/path/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other/path", Link: "/some/other/path/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other/path/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other/path", Link: "/some/other/path/"},
 					},
 					{
-						"HTML page with URL containing double hyphen", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"HTML page with URL containing double hyphen", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/sect/",
 							BaseName: "mypage",
 							URL:      "/some/other--url/",
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other--url/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other--url", Link: "/some/other--url/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/some/other--url/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/some/other--url", Link: "/some/other--url/"},
 					},
 					{
-						"HTML page with expanded permalink", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:              KindPage,
+						"HTML page with expanded permalink", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:              page.KindPage,
 							Dir:               "/a/b",
 							BaseName:          "mypage",
 							ExpandedPermalink: "/2017/10/my-title/",
 							Type:              output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/2017/10/my-title/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/2017/10/my-title", Link: "/2017/10/my-title/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/2017/10/my-title/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/2017/10/my-title", Link: "/2017/10/my-title/"},
 					},
 					{
-						"Paginated HTML home", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindHome,
+						"Paginated HTML home", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindHome,
 							BaseName: "_index",
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
 							Addends:  "page/3",
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/page/3/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/page/3", Link: "/page/3/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/page/3/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/page/3", Link: "/page/3/"},
 					},
 					{
-						"Paginated Taxonomy terms list", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindTerm,
+						"Paginated Taxonomy terms list", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindTerm,
 							BaseName: "_index",
 							Sections: []string{"tags", "hugo"},
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
 							Addends:  "page/3",
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/tags/hugo/page/3/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/tags/hugo/page/3", Link: "/tags/hugo/page/3/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/tags/hugo/page/3/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/tags/hugo/page/3", Link: "/tags/hugo/page/3/"},
 					},
 					{
-						"Regular page with addend", TargetPathDescriptor{
-							Kind:     KindPage,
+						"Regular page with addend", page.TargetPathDescriptor{
+							Kind:     page.KindPage,
 							Dir:      "/a/b",
 							BaseName: "mypage",
 							Addends:  "c/d/e",
 							Type:     output.HTMLFormat,
-						}, TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/mypage/c/d/e/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b/mypage/c/d/e", Link: "/a/b/mypage/c/d/e/"},
+						}, page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/a/b/mypage/c/d/e/index.html", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/a/b/mypage/c/d/e", Link: "/a/b/mypage/c/d/e/"},
 					},
 				}
 
@@ -206,8 +207,8 @@ func TestPageTargetPath(t *testing.T) {
 							expected := test.expected
 
 							// TODO(bep) simplify
-							if test.d.Kind == KindPage && test.d.BaseName == test.d.Type.BaseName {
-							} else if test.d.Kind == KindHome && test.d.Type.Path != "" {
+							if test.d.Kind == page.KindPage && test.d.BaseName == test.d.Type.BaseName {
+							} else if test.d.Kind == page.KindHome && test.d.Type.Path != "" {
 							} else if test.d.Type.MediaType.FirstSuffix.Suffix != "" && (!strings.HasPrefix(expected.TargetFilename, "/index") || test.d.Addends != "") && test.d.URL == "" && isUgly {
 								expected.TargetFilename = strings.Replace(expected.TargetFilename,
 									"/"+test.d.Type.BaseName+"."+test.d.Type.MediaType.FirstSuffix.Suffix,
@@ -228,7 +229,7 @@ func TestPageTargetPath(t *testing.T) {
 							expected.TargetFilename = filepath.FromSlash(expected.TargetFilename)
 							expected.SubResourceBaseTarget = filepath.FromSlash(expected.SubResourceBaseTarget)
 
-							pagePath := CreateTargetPaths(test.d)
+							pagePath := page.CreateTargetPaths(test.d)
 
 							if !eqTargetPaths(pagePath, expected) {
 								t.Fatalf("[%d] [%s] targetPath expected\n%#v, got:\n%#v", i, test.name, expected, pagePath)
@@ -244,18 +245,18 @@ func TestPageTargetPathPrefix(t *testing.T) {
 	pathSpec := newTestPathSpec()
 	tests := []struct {
 		name     string
-		d        TargetPathDescriptor
-		expected TargetPaths
+		d        page.TargetPathDescriptor
+		expected page.TargetPaths
 	}{
 		{
 			"URL set, prefix both, no force",
-			TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindPage, Type: output.JSONFormat, URL: "/mydir/my.json", ForcePrefix: false, PrefixFilePath: "pf", PrefixLink: "pl"},
-			TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/mydir/my.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/mydir", SubResourceBaseLink: "/mydir", Link: "/mydir/my.json"},
+			page.TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: page.KindPage, Type: output.JSONFormat, URL: "/mydir/my.json", ForcePrefix: false, PrefixFilePath: "pf", PrefixLink: "pl"},
+			page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/mydir/my.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/mydir", SubResourceBaseLink: "/mydir", Link: "/mydir/my.json"},
 		},
 		{
 			"URL set, prefix both, force",
-			TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindPage, Type: output.JSONFormat, URL: "/mydir/my.json", ForcePrefix: true, PrefixFilePath: "pf", PrefixLink: "pl"},
-			TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/pf/mydir/my.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/pf/mydir", SubResourceBaseLink: "/pl/mydir", Link: "/pl/mydir/my.json"},
+			page.TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: page.KindPage, Type: output.JSONFormat, URL: "/mydir/my.json", ForcePrefix: true, PrefixFilePath: "pf", PrefixLink: "pl"},
+			page.TargetPaths{TargetFilename: "/pf/mydir/my.json", SubResourceBaseTarget: "/pf/mydir", SubResourceBaseLink: "/pl/mydir", Link: "/pl/mydir/my.json"},
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -267,7 +268,7 @@ func TestPageTargetPathPrefix(t *testing.T) {
 				expected.TargetFilename = filepath.FromSlash(expected.TargetFilename)
 				expected.SubResourceBaseTarget = filepath.FromSlash(expected.SubResourceBaseTarget)
 
-				pagePath := CreateTargetPaths(test.d)
+				pagePath := page.CreateTargetPaths(test.d)
 
 				if pagePath != expected {
 					t.Fatalf("[%d] [%s] targetPath expected\n%#v, got:\n%#v", i, test.name, expected, pagePath)
@@ -276,7 +277,7 @@ func TestPageTargetPathPrefix(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func eqTargetPaths(p1, p2 TargetPaths) bool {
+func eqTargetPaths(p1, p2 page.TargetPaths) bool {
 	if p1.Link != p2.Link {
 		return false
 	}
diff --git a/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter.go b/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter.go
index bc82773e8..d827bfbad 100644
--- a/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter.go
+++ b/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter.go
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ import (
 // FrontMatterHandler maps front matter into Page fields and .Params.
 // Note that we currently have only extracted the date logic.
 type FrontMatterHandler struct {
-	fmConfig frontmatterConfig
+	fmConfig FrontmatterConfig
 
 	dateHandler        frontMatterFieldHandler
 	lastModHandler     frontMatterFieldHandler
@@ -159,11 +159,15 @@ func (f FrontMatterHandler) newChainedFrontMatterFieldHandler(handlers ...frontM
 	}
 }
 
-type frontmatterConfig struct {
-	date        []string
-	lastmod     []string
-	publishDate []string
-	expiryDate  []string
+type FrontmatterConfig struct {
+	// Controls how the Date is set from front matter.
+	Date []string
+	// Controls how the Lastmod is set from front matter.
+	Lastmod []string
+	// Controls how the PublishDate is set from front matter.
+	PublishDate []string
+	// Controls how the ExpiryDate is set from front matter.
+	ExpiryDate []string
 }
 
 const (
@@ -185,16 +189,16 @@ const (
 )
 
 // This is the config you get when doing nothing.
-func newDefaultFrontmatterConfig() frontmatterConfig {
-	return frontmatterConfig{
-		date:        []string{fmDate, fmPubDate, fmLastmod},
-		lastmod:     []string{fmGitAuthorDate, fmLastmod, fmDate, fmPubDate},
-		publishDate: []string{fmPubDate, fmDate},
-		expiryDate:  []string{fmExpiryDate},
+func newDefaultFrontmatterConfig() FrontmatterConfig {
+	return FrontmatterConfig{
+		Date:        []string{fmDate, fmPubDate, fmLastmod},
+		Lastmod:     []string{fmGitAuthorDate, fmLastmod, fmDate, fmPubDate},
+		PublishDate: []string{fmPubDate, fmDate},
+		ExpiryDate:  []string{fmExpiryDate},
 	}
 }
 
-func newFrontmatterConfig(cfg config.Provider) (frontmatterConfig, error) {
+func DecodeFrontMatterConfig(cfg config.Provider) (FrontmatterConfig, error) {
 	c := newDefaultFrontmatterConfig()
 	defaultConfig := c
 
@@ -204,13 +208,13 @@ func newFrontmatterConfig(cfg config.Provider) (frontmatterConfig, error) {
 			loki := strings.ToLower(k)
 			switch loki {
 			case fmDate:
-				c.date = toLowerSlice(v)
+				c.Date = toLowerSlice(v)
 			case fmPubDate:
-				c.publishDate = toLowerSlice(v)
+				c.PublishDate = toLowerSlice(v)
 			case fmLastmod:
-				c.lastmod = toLowerSlice(v)
+				c.Lastmod = toLowerSlice(v)
 			case fmExpiryDate:
-				c.expiryDate = toLowerSlice(v)
+				c.ExpiryDate = toLowerSlice(v)
 			}
 		}
 	}
@@ -221,10 +225,10 @@ func newFrontmatterConfig(cfg config.Provider) (frontmatterConfig, error) {
 		return out
 	}
 
-	c.date = expander(c.date, defaultConfig.date)
-	c.publishDate = expander(c.publishDate, defaultConfig.publishDate)
-	c.lastmod = expander(c.lastmod, defaultConfig.lastmod)
-	c.expiryDate = expander(c.expiryDate, defaultConfig.expiryDate)
+	c.Date = expander(c.Date, defaultConfig.Date)
+	c.PublishDate = expander(c.PublishDate, defaultConfig.PublishDate)
+	c.Lastmod = expander(c.Lastmod, defaultConfig.Lastmod)
+	c.ExpiryDate = expander(c.ExpiryDate, defaultConfig.ExpiryDate)
 
 	return c, nil
 }
@@ -264,16 +268,11 @@ func toLowerSlice(in any) []string {
 
 // NewFrontmatterHandler creates a new FrontMatterHandler with the given logger and configuration.
 // If no logger is provided, one will be created.
-func NewFrontmatterHandler(logger loggers.Logger, cfg config.Provider) (FrontMatterHandler, error) {
+func NewFrontmatterHandler(logger loggers.Logger, frontMatterConfig FrontmatterConfig) (FrontMatterHandler, error) {
 	if logger == nil {
 		logger = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
 	}
 
-	frontMatterConfig, err := newFrontmatterConfig(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		return FrontMatterHandler{}, err
-	}
-
 	allDateKeys := make(map[string]bool)
 	addKeys := func(vals []string) {
 		for _, k := range vals {
@@ -283,10 +282,10 @@ func NewFrontmatterHandler(logger loggers.Logger, cfg config.Provider) (FrontMat
 		}
 	}
 
-	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.date)
-	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.expiryDate)
-	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.lastmod)
-	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.publishDate)
+	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.Date)
+	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.ExpiryDate)
+	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.Lastmod)
+	addKeys(frontMatterConfig.PublishDate)
 
 	f := FrontMatterHandler{logger: logger, fmConfig: frontMatterConfig, allDateKeys: allDateKeys}
 
@@ -300,7 +299,7 @@ func NewFrontmatterHandler(logger loggers.Logger, cfg config.Provider) (FrontMat
 func (f *FrontMatterHandler) createHandlers() error {
 	var err error
 
-	if f.dateHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.date,
+	if f.dateHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.Date,
 		func(d *FrontMatterDescriptor, t time.Time) {
 			d.Dates.FDate = t
 			setParamIfNotSet(fmDate, t, d)
@@ -308,7 +307,7 @@ func (f *FrontMatterHandler) createHandlers() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	if f.lastModHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.lastmod,
+	if f.lastModHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.Lastmod,
 		func(d *FrontMatterDescriptor, t time.Time) {
 			setParamIfNotSet(fmLastmod, t, d)
 			d.Dates.FLastmod = t
@@ -316,7 +315,7 @@ func (f *FrontMatterHandler) createHandlers() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	if f.publishDateHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.publishDate,
+	if f.publishDateHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.PublishDate,
 		func(d *FrontMatterDescriptor, t time.Time) {
 			setParamIfNotSet(fmPubDate, t, d)
 			d.Dates.FPublishDate = t
@@ -324,7 +323,7 @@ func (f *FrontMatterHandler) createHandlers() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	if f.expiryDateHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.expiryDate,
+	if f.expiryDateHandler, err = f.createDateHandler(f.fmConfig.ExpiryDate,
 		func(d *FrontMatterDescriptor, t time.Time) {
 			setParamIfNotSet(fmExpiryDate, t, d)
 			d.Dates.FExpiryDate = t
diff --git a/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter_test.go b/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter_test.go
index c5c4ccf2d..f040af163 100644
--- a/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter_test.go
+++ b/resources/page/pagemeta/page_frontmatter_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package pagemeta
+package pagemeta_test
 
 import (
 	"strings"
@@ -19,54 +19,20 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page/pagemeta"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
-func TestDateAndSlugFromBaseFilename(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	tests := []struct {
-		name string
-		date string
-		slug string
-	}{
-		{"page.md", "0001-01-01", ""},
-		{"2012-09-12-page.md", "2012-09-12", "page"},
-		{"2018-02-28-page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
-		{"2018-02-28_page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
-		{"2018-02-28 page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
-		{"2018-02-28page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
-		{"2018-02-28-.md", "2018-02-28", ""},
-		{"2018-02-28-.md", "2018-02-28", ""},
-		{"2018-02-28.md", "2018-02-28", ""},
-		{"2018-02-28-page", "2018-02-28", "page"},
-		{"2012-9-12-page.md", "0001-01-01", ""},
-		{"asdfasdf.md", "0001-01-01", ""},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		expecteFDate, err := time.Parse("2006-01-02", test.date)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-		gotDate, gotSlug := dateAndSlugFromBaseFilename(time.UTC, test.name)
-
-		c.Assert(gotDate, qt.Equals, expecteFDate)
-		c.Assert(gotSlug, qt.Equals, test.slug)
-
-	}
-}
-
-func newTestFd() *FrontMatterDescriptor {
-	return &FrontMatterDescriptor{
+func newTestFd() *pagemeta.FrontMatterDescriptor {
+	return &pagemeta.FrontMatterDescriptor{
 		Frontmatter: make(map[string]any),
 		Params:      make(map[string]any),
 		Dates:       &resource.Dates{},
-		PageURLs:    &URLPath{},
+		PageURLs:    &pagemeta.URLPath{},
 		Location:    time.UTC,
 	}
 }
@@ -83,21 +49,21 @@ func TestFrontMatterNewConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		"publishDate": []string{"date"},
 	})
 
-	fc, err := newFrontmatterConfig(cfg)
+	fc, err := pagemeta.DecodeFrontMatterConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(fc.date, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "lastmod", "modified"})
-	c.Assert(fc.lastmod, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"publishdate", "pubdate", "published"})
-	c.Assert(fc.expiryDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"lastmod", "modified"})
-	c.Assert(fc.publishDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"date"})
+	c.Assert(fc.Date, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "lastmod", "modified"})
+	c.Assert(fc.Lastmod, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"publishdate", "pubdate", "published"})
+	c.Assert(fc.ExpiryDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"lastmod", "modified"})
+	c.Assert(fc.PublishDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"date"})
 
 	// Default
 	cfg = config.New()
-	fc, err = newFrontmatterConfig(cfg)
+	fc, err = pagemeta.DecodeFrontMatterConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(fc.date, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "lastmod", "modified"})
-	c.Assert(fc.lastmod, qt.DeepEquals, []string{":git", "lastmod", "modified", "date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published"})
-	c.Assert(fc.expiryDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"expirydate", "unpublishdate"})
-	c.Assert(fc.publishDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "date"})
+	c.Assert(fc.Date, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "lastmod", "modified"})
+	c.Assert(fc.Lastmod, qt.DeepEquals, []string{":git", "lastmod", "modified", "date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published"})
+	c.Assert(fc.ExpiryDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"expirydate", "unpublishdate"})
+	c.Assert(fc.PublishDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "date"})
 
 	// :default keyword
 	cfg.Set("frontmatter", map[string]any{
@@ -106,12 +72,12 @@ func TestFrontMatterNewConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		"expiryDate":  []string{"d3", ":default"},
 		"publishDate": []string{"d4", ":default"},
 	})
-	fc, err = newFrontmatterConfig(cfg)
+	fc, err = pagemeta.DecodeFrontMatterConfig(cfg)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(fc.date, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d1", "date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "lastmod", "modified"})
-	c.Assert(fc.lastmod, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d2", ":git", "lastmod", "modified", "date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published"})
-	c.Assert(fc.expiryDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d3", "expirydate", "unpublishdate"})
-	c.Assert(fc.publishDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d4", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "date"})
+	c.Assert(fc.Date, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d1", "date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "lastmod", "modified"})
+	c.Assert(fc.Lastmod, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d2", ":git", "lastmod", "modified", "date", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published"})
+	c.Assert(fc.ExpiryDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d3", "expirydate", "unpublishdate"})
+	c.Assert(fc.PublishDate, qt.DeepEquals, []string{"d4", "publishdate", "pubdate", "published", "date"})
 }
 
 func TestFrontMatterDatesHandlers(t *testing.T) {
@@ -124,8 +90,8 @@ func TestFrontMatterDatesHandlers(t *testing.T) {
 		cfg.Set("frontmatter", map[string]any{
 			"date": []string{handlerID, "date"},
 		})
-
-		handler, err := NewFrontmatterHandler(nil, cfg)
+		conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+		handler, err := pagemeta.NewFrontmatterHandler(nil, conf.GetConfigSection("frontmatter").(pagemeta.FrontmatterConfig))
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 		d1, _ := time.Parse("2006-01-02", "2018-02-01")
@@ -166,7 +132,8 @@ func TestFrontMatterDatesCustomConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		"publishdate": []string{"publishdate"},
 	})
 
-	handler, err := NewFrontmatterHandler(nil, cfg)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+	handler, err := pagemeta.NewFrontmatterHandler(nil, conf.GetConfigSection("frontmatter").(pagemeta.FrontmatterConfig))
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	testDate, err := time.Parse("2006-01-02", "2018-02-01")
@@ -213,7 +180,8 @@ func TestFrontMatterDatesDefaultKeyword(t *testing.T) {
 		"publishdate": []string{":default", "mypubdate"},
 	})
 
-	handler, err := NewFrontmatterHandler(nil, cfg)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+	handler, err := pagemeta.NewFrontmatterHandler(nil, conf.GetConfigSection("frontmatter").(pagemeta.FrontmatterConfig))
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	testDate, _ := time.Parse("2006-01-02", "2018-02-01")
@@ -230,28 +198,3 @@ func TestFrontMatterDatesDefaultKeyword(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(d.Dates.FPublishDate.Day(), qt.Equals, 4)
 	c.Assert(d.Dates.FExpiryDate.IsZero(), qt.Equals, true)
 }
-
-func TestExpandDefaultValues(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	c.Assert(expandDefaultValues([]string{"a", ":default", "d"}, []string{"b", "c"}), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"a", "b", "c", "d"})
-	c.Assert(expandDefaultValues([]string{"a", "b", "c"}, []string{"a", "b", "c"}), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"a", "b", "c"})
-	c.Assert(expandDefaultValues([]string{":default", "a", ":default", "d"}, []string{"b", "c"}), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"b", "c", "a", "b", "c", "d"})
-}
-
-func TestFrontMatterDateFieldHandler(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-
-	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	handlers := new(frontmatterFieldHandlers)
-
-	fd := newTestFd()
-	d, _ := time.Parse("2006-01-02", "2018-02-01")
-	fd.Frontmatter["date"] = d
-	h := handlers.newDateFieldHandler("date", func(d *FrontMatterDescriptor, t time.Time) { d.Dates.FDate = t })
-
-	handled, err := h(fd)
-	c.Assert(handled, qt.Equals, true)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(fd.Dates.FDate, qt.Equals, d)
-}
diff --git a/resources/page/pagemeta/pagemeta_test.go b/resources/page/pagemeta/pagemeta_test.go
index 288dc7e26..eef16ef03 100644
--- a/resources/page/pagemeta/pagemeta_test.go
+++ b/resources/page/pagemeta/pagemeta_test.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package pagemeta
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"testing"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting/hqt"
 
@@ -90,3 +91,46 @@ publishResources = true`
 
 	}
 }
+
+func TestDateAndSlugFromBaseFilename(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
+	tests := []struct {
+		name string
+		date string
+		slug string
+	}{
+		{"page.md", "0001-01-01", ""},
+		{"2012-09-12-page.md", "2012-09-12", "page"},
+		{"2018-02-28-page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
+		{"2018-02-28_page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
+		{"2018-02-28 page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
+		{"2018-02-28page.md", "2018-02-28", "page"},
+		{"2018-02-28-.md", "2018-02-28", ""},
+		{"2018-02-28-.md", "2018-02-28", ""},
+		{"2018-02-28.md", "2018-02-28", ""},
+		{"2018-02-28-page", "2018-02-28", "page"},
+		{"2012-9-12-page.md", "0001-01-01", ""},
+		{"asdfasdf.md", "0001-01-01", ""},
+	}
+
+	for _, test := range tests {
+		expecteFDate, err := time.Parse("2006-01-02", test.date)
+		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+
+		gotDate, gotSlug := dateAndSlugFromBaseFilename(time.UTC, test.name)
+
+		c.Assert(gotDate, qt.Equals, expecteFDate)
+		c.Assert(gotSlug, qt.Equals, test.slug)
+
+	}
+}
+
+func TestExpandDefaultValues(t *testing.T) {
+	c := qt.New(t)
+	c.Assert(expandDefaultValues([]string{"a", ":default", "d"}, []string{"b", "c"}), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"a", "b", "c", "d"})
+	c.Assert(expandDefaultValues([]string{"a", "b", "c"}, []string{"a", "b", "c"}), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"a", "b", "c"})
+	c.Assert(expandDefaultValues([]string{":default", "a", ":default", "d"}, []string{"b", "c"}), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"b", "c", "a", "b", "c", "d"})
+}
diff --git a/resources/page/pages_language_merge.go b/resources/page/pages_language_merge.go
index 4c5a926cf..aa2ec2e0d 100644
--- a/resources/page/pages_language_merge.go
+++ b/resources/page/pages_language_merge.go
@@ -50,6 +50,7 @@ func (p1 Pages) MergeByLanguage(p2 Pages) Pages {
 
 // MergeByLanguageInterface is the generic version of MergeByLanguage. It
 // is here just so it can be called from the tpl package.
+// This is for internal use.
 func (p1 Pages) MergeByLanguageInterface(in any) (any, error) {
 	if in == nil {
 		return p1, nil
diff --git a/resources/page/pagination.go b/resources/page/pagination.go
index ddede792f..a4605fa8e 100644
--- a/resources/page/pagination.go
+++ b/resources/page/pagination.go
@@ -250,9 +250,9 @@ func splitPageGroups(pageGroups PagesGroup, size int) []paginatedElement {
 	return split
 }
 
-func ResolvePagerSize(cfg config.Provider, options ...any) (int, error) {
+func ResolvePagerSize(conf config.AllProvider, options ...any) (int, error) {
 	if len(options) == 0 {
-		return cfg.GetInt("paginate"), nil
+		return conf.Paginate(), nil
 	}
 
 	if len(options) > 1 {
@@ -389,7 +389,7 @@ func newPaginationURLFactory(d TargetPathDescriptor) paginationURLFactory {
 		pathDescriptor := d
 		var rel string
 		if pageNumber > 1 {
-			rel = fmt.Sprintf("/%s/%d/", d.PathSpec.PaginatePath, pageNumber)
+			rel = fmt.Sprintf("/%s/%d/", d.PathSpec.Cfg.PaginatePath(), pageNumber)
 			pathDescriptor.Addends = rel
 		}
 
diff --git a/resources/page/pagination_test.go b/resources/page/pagination_test.go
index 2686d3920..1e115d62b 100644
--- a/resources/page/pagination_test.go
+++ b/resources/page/pagination_test.go
@@ -19,10 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"html/template"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 )
 
 func TestSplitPages(t *testing.T) {
@@ -194,58 +191,6 @@ func doTestPagerNoPages(t *testing.T, paginator *Paginator) {
 	c.Assert(pageOne.PageSize(), qt.Equals, 5)
 }
 
-func TestPaginationURLFactory(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Parallel()
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	cfg := config.New()
-	cfg.Set("paginatePath", "zoo")
-
-	for _, uglyURLs := range []bool{false, true} {
-		c.Run(fmt.Sprintf("uglyURLs=%t", uglyURLs), func(c *qt.C) {
-			tests := []struct {
-				name         string
-				d            TargetPathDescriptor
-				baseURL      string
-				page         int
-				expected     string
-				expectedUgly string
-			}{
-				{
-					"HTML home page 32",
-					TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindHome, Type: output.HTMLFormat},
-					"http://example.com/", 32, "/zoo/32/", "/zoo/32.html",
-				},
-				{
-					"JSON home page 42",
-					TargetPathDescriptor{Kind: KindHome, Type: output.JSONFormat},
-					"http://example.com/", 42, "/zoo/42/index.json", "/zoo/42.json",
-				},
-			}
-
-			for _, test := range tests {
-				d := test.d
-				cfg.Set("baseURL", test.baseURL)
-				cfg.Set("uglyURLs", uglyURLs)
-				d.UglyURLs = uglyURLs
-
-				pathSpec := newTestPathSpecFor(cfg)
-				d.PathSpec = pathSpec
-
-				factory := newPaginationURLFactory(d)
-
-				got := factory(test.page)
-
-				if uglyURLs {
-					c.Assert(got, qt.Equals, test.expectedUgly)
-				} else {
-					c.Assert(got, qt.Equals, test.expected)
-				}
-
-			}
-		})
-	}
-}
-
 func TestProbablyEqualPageLists(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	fivePages := createTestPages(5)
diff --git a/resources/page/permalinks.go b/resources/page/permalinks.go
index dbf10220c..3dfc36937 100644
--- a/resources/page/permalinks.go
+++ b/resources/page/permalinks.go
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ type PermalinkExpander struct {
 
 	expanders map[string]func(Page) (string, error)
 
-	ps *helpers.PathSpec
+	urlize func(uri string) string
 }
 
 // Time for checking date formats. Every field is different than the
@@ -67,9 +67,9 @@ func (p PermalinkExpander) callback(attr string) (pageToPermaAttribute, bool) {
 }
 
 // NewPermalinkExpander creates a new PermalinkExpander configured by the given
-// PathSpec.
-func NewPermalinkExpander(ps *helpers.PathSpec) (PermalinkExpander, error) {
-	p := PermalinkExpander{ps: ps}
+// urlize func.
+func NewPermalinkExpander(urlize func(uri string) string, patterns map[string]string) (PermalinkExpander, error) {
+	p := PermalinkExpander{urlize: urlize}
 
 	p.knownPermalinkAttributes = map[string]pageToPermaAttribute{
 		"year":           p.pageToPermalinkDate,
@@ -87,11 +87,6 @@ func NewPermalinkExpander(ps *helpers.PathSpec) (PermalinkExpander, error) {
 		"filename":       p.pageToPermalinkFilename,
 	}
 
-	patterns := ps.Cfg.GetStringMapString("permalinks")
-	if patterns == nil {
-		return p, nil
-	}
-
 	e, err := p.parse(patterns)
 	if err != nil {
 		return p, err
@@ -180,6 +175,9 @@ var attributeRegexp = regexp.MustCompile(`:\w+(\[.+?\])?`)
 
 // validate determines if a PathPattern is well-formed
 func (l PermalinkExpander) validate(pp string) bool {
+	if len(pp) == 0 {
+		return false
+	}
 	fragments := strings.Split(pp[1:], "/")
 	bail := false
 	for i := range fragments {
@@ -244,7 +242,7 @@ func (l PermalinkExpander) pageToPermalinkDate(p Page, dateField string) (string
 
 // pageToPermalinkTitle returns the URL-safe form of the title
 func (l PermalinkExpander) pageToPermalinkTitle(p Page, _ string) (string, error) {
-	return l.ps.URLize(p.Title()), nil
+	return l.urlize(p.Title()), nil
 }
 
 // pageToPermalinkFilename returns the URL-safe form of the filename
@@ -256,13 +254,13 @@ func (l PermalinkExpander) pageToPermalinkFilename(p Page, _ string) (string, er
 		_, name = filepath.Split(dir)
 	}
 
-	return l.ps.URLize(name), nil
+	return l.urlize(name), nil
 }
 
 // if the page has a slug, return the slug, else return the title
 func (l PermalinkExpander) pageToPermalinkSlugElseTitle(p Page, a string) (string, error) {
 	if p.Slug() != "" {
-		return l.ps.URLize(p.Slug()), nil
+		return l.urlize(p.Slug()), nil
 	}
 	return l.pageToPermalinkTitle(p, a)
 }
@@ -270,7 +268,7 @@ func (l PermalinkExpander) pageToPermalinkSlugElseTitle(p Page, a string) (strin
 // if the page has a slug, return the slug, else return the filename
 func (l PermalinkExpander) pageToPermalinkSlugElseFilename(p Page, a string) (string, error) {
 	if p.Slug() != "" {
-		return l.ps.URLize(p.Slug()), nil
+		return l.urlize(p.Slug()), nil
 	}
 	return l.pageToPermalinkFilename(p, a)
 }
diff --git a/resources/page/permalinks_test.go b/resources/page/permalinks_test.go
index 07333492f..b9c0ca9cb 100644
--- a/resources/page/permalinks_test.go
+++ b/resources/page/permalinks_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package page
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"regexp"
+	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
@@ -52,6 +53,11 @@ var testdataPermalinks = []struct {
 	{"/:2006-01-02", false, ""}, // valid date format but invalid attribute name
 }
 
+func urlize(uri string) string {
+	// This is just an approximation of the real urlize function.
+	return strings.ToLower(strings.ReplaceAll(uri, " ", "-"))
+}
+
 func TestPermalinkExpansion(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
@@ -73,17 +79,11 @@ func TestPermalinkExpansion(t *testing.T) {
 		name := specNameCleaner.ReplaceAllString(item.spec, "")
 
 		c.Run(name, func(c *qt.C) {
-
-			permalinksConfig := map[string]string{
+			patterns := map[string]string{
 				"posts": item.spec,
 			}
-
-			ps := newTestPathSpec()
-			ps.Cfg.Set("permalinks", permalinksConfig)
-
-			expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(ps)
+			expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(urlize, patterns)
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
 			expanded, err := expander.Expand("posts", page)
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 			c.Assert(expanded, qt.Equals, item.expandsTo)
@@ -112,11 +112,7 @@ func TestPermalinkExpansionMultiSection(t *testing.T) {
 		"blog":    "/:section/:year",
 		"recipes": "/:slugorfilename",
 	}
-
-	ps := newTestPathSpec()
-	ps.Cfg.Set("permalinks", permalinksConfig)
-
-	expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(ps)
+	expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(urlize, permalinksConfig)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	expanded, err := expander.Expand("posts", page)
@@ -145,10 +141,7 @@ func TestPermalinkExpansionConcurrent(t *testing.T) {
 		"posts": "/:slug/",
 	}
 
-	ps := newTestPathSpec()
-	ps.Cfg.Set("permalinks", permalinksConfig)
-
-	expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(ps)
+	expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(urlize, permalinksConfig)
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
@@ -174,7 +167,8 @@ func TestPermalinkExpansionSliceSyntax(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	exp, _ := NewPermalinkExpander(newTestPathSpec())
+	exp, err := NewPermalinkExpander(urlize, nil)
+	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	slice := []string{"a", "b", "c", "d"}
 	fn := func(s string) []string {
 		return exp.toSliceFunc(s)(slice)
@@ -219,11 +213,7 @@ func BenchmarkPermalinkExpand(b *testing.B) {
 	permalinksConfig := map[string]string{
 		"posts": "/:year-:month-:title",
 	}
-
-	ps := newTestPathSpec()
-	ps.Cfg.Set("permalinks", permalinksConfig)
-
-	expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(ps)
+	expander, err := NewPermalinkExpander(urlize, permalinksConfig)
 	if err != nil {
 		b.Fatal(err)
 	}
diff --git a/resources/page/site.go b/resources/page/site.go
index 47bd770ef..3243e9b39 100644
--- a/resources/page/site.go
+++ b/resources/page/site.go
@@ -18,7 +18,10 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/privacy"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/services"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 
@@ -32,13 +35,15 @@ type Site interface {
 	// Returns the Language configured for this Site.
 	Language() *langs.Language
 
+	GetPage(ref ...string) (Page, error)
+
 	// Returns all the regular Pages in this Site.
 	RegularPages() Pages
 
 	// Returns all Pages in this Site.
 	Pages() Pages
 
-	// A shortcut to the home page.
+	// A shortcut to the home
 	Home() Page
 
 	// Returns true if we're running in a server.
@@ -50,6 +55,12 @@ type Site interface {
 	// Returns the configured title for this Site.
 	Title() string
 
+	// Returns the configured language code for this Site.
+	LanguageCode() string
+
+	// Returns the configured copyright information for this Site.
+	Copyright() string
+
 	// Returns all Sites for all languages.
 	Sites() Sites
 
@@ -57,7 +68,7 @@ type Site interface {
 	Current() Site
 
 	// Returns a struct with some information about the build.
-	Hugo() hugo.Info
+	Hugo() hugo.HugoInfo
 
 	// Returns the BaseURL for this Site.
 	BaseURL() template.URL
@@ -71,14 +82,36 @@ type Site interface {
 	// Returns the Menus for this site.
 	Menus() navigation.Menus
 
+	// The main sections in the site.
+	MainSections() []string
+
 	// Returns the Params configured for this site.
 	Params() maps.Params
 
 	// Returns a map of all the data inside /data.
 	Data() map[string]any
 
+	// Returns the site config.
+	Config() SiteConfig
+
 	// Returns the identity of this site.
+	// This is for internal use only.
 	GetIdentity() identity.Identity
+
+	// Author is deprecated and will be removed in a future release.
+	Author() map[string]interface{}
+
+	// Returns the social links for this site.
+	Social() map[string]string
+
+	// Deprecated: Use Config().Services.GoogleAnalytics instead.
+	GoogleAnalytics() string
+
+	// Deprecated: Use Config().Privacy.Disqus instead.
+	DisqusShortname() string
+
+	// For internal use only.
+	GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info tpl.Info, ref ...string) (Page, error)
 }
 
 // Sites represents an ordered list of sites (languages).
@@ -92,12 +125,139 @@ func (s Sites) First() Site {
 	return s[0]
 }
 
+type siteWrapper struct {
+	s Site
+}
+
+func WrapSite(s Site) Site {
+	if s == nil {
+		panic("Site is nil")
+	}
+	return &siteWrapper{s: s}
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Social() map[string]string {
+	return s.s.Social()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Author() map[string]interface{} {
+	return s.s.Author()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) GoogleAnalytics() string {
+	return s.s.GoogleAnalytics()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) GetPage(ref ...string) (Page, error) {
+	return s.s.GetPage(ref...)
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Language() *langs.Language {
+	return s.s.Language()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) RegularPages() Pages {
+	return s.s.RegularPages()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Pages() Pages {
+	return s.s.Pages()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Home() Page {
+	return s.s.Home()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) IsServer() bool {
+	return s.s.IsServer()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) ServerPort() int {
+	return s.s.ServerPort()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Title() string {
+	return s.s.Title()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) LanguageCode() string {
+	return s.s.LanguageCode()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Copyright() string {
+	return s.s.Copyright()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Sites() Sites {
+	return s.s.Sites()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Current() Site {
+	return s.s.Current()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Config() SiteConfig {
+	return s.s.Config()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Hugo() hugo.HugoInfo {
+	return s.s.Hugo()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) BaseURL() template.URL {
+	return s.s.BaseURL()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Taxonomies() TaxonomyList {
+	return s.s.Taxonomies()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) LastChange() time.Time {
+	return s.s.LastChange()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Menus() navigation.Menus {
+	return s.s.Menus()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) MainSections() []string {
+	return s.s.MainSections()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Params() maps.Params {
+	return s.s.Params()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) Data() map[string]any {
+	return s.s.Data()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) GetIdentity() identity.Identity {
+	return s.s.GetIdentity()
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info tpl.Info, ref ...string) (Page, error) {
+	return s.s.GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info, ref...)
+}
+
+func (s *siteWrapper) DisqusShortname() string {
+	return s.s.DisqusShortname()
+}
+
 type testSite struct {
-	h hugo.Info
+	h hugo.HugoInfo
 	l *langs.Language
 }
 
-func (t testSite) Hugo() hugo.Info {
+func (s testSite) Author() map[string]interface{} {
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (s testSite) Social() map[string]string {
+	return make(map[string]string)
+}
+
+func (t testSite) Hugo() hugo.HugoInfo {
 	return t.h
 }
 
@@ -113,14 +273,34 @@ func (t testSite) Title() string {
 	return "foo"
 }
 
+func (t testSite) LanguageCode() string {
+	return t.l.Lang
+}
+
+func (t testSite) Copyright() string {
+	return ""
+}
+
 func (t testSite) Sites() Sites {
 	return nil
 }
 
+func (t testSite) GetPage(ref ...string) (Page, error) {
+	return nil, nil
+}
+
 func (t testSite) Current() Site {
 	return t
 }
 
+func (t testSite) GoogleAnalytics() string {
+	return ""
+}
+
+func (t testSite) MainSections() []string {
+	return nil
+}
+
 func (t testSite) GetIdentity() identity.Identity {
 	return identity.KeyValueIdentity{Key: "site", Value: t.l.Lang}
 }
@@ -165,10 +345,34 @@ func (t testSite) Data() map[string]any {
 	return nil
 }
 
+func (s testSite) Config() SiteConfig {
+	return SiteConfig{}
+}
+
+func (testSite) GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info tpl.Info, ref ...string) (Page, error) {
+	return nil, nil
+}
+
+func (testSite) DisqusShortname() string {
+	return ""
+}
+
 // NewDummyHugoSite creates a new minimal test site.
 func NewDummyHugoSite(cfg config.Provider) Site {
 	return testSite{
 		h: hugo.NewInfo(hugo.EnvironmentProduction, nil),
-		l: langs.NewLanguage("en", cfg),
+		l: &langs.Language{
+			Lang: "en",
+		},
 	}
 }
+
+// SiteConfig holds the config in site.Config.
+type SiteConfig struct {
+	// This contains all privacy related settings that can be used to
+	// make the YouTube template etc. GDPR compliant.
+	Privacy privacy.Config
+
+	// Services contains config for services such as Google Analytics etc.
+	Services services.Config
+}
diff --git a/resources/page/testhelpers_page_test.go b/resources/page/testhelpers_page_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c462e176f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/resources/page/testhelpers_page_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package page_test
+
+import (
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
+)
+
+func newTestPathSpec() *helpers.PathSpec {
+	return newTestPathSpecFor(config.New())
+}
+
+func newTestPathSpecFor(cfg config.Provider) *helpers.PathSpec {
+	mfs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(mfs, cfg)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(mfs, conf.BaseConfig())
+	ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, conf, loggers.NewErrorLogger())
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	return ps
+}
diff --git a/resources/page/testhelpers_test.go b/resources/page/testhelpers_test.go
index 72f62ee8d..50f297cab 100644
--- a/resources/page/testhelpers_test.go
+++ b/resources/page/testhelpers_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -26,9 +26,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/markup/tableofcontents"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/navigation"
@@ -58,6 +55,19 @@ func newTestPage() *testPage {
 func newTestPageWithFile(filename string) *testPage {
 	filename = filepath.FromSlash(filename)
 	file := source.NewTestFile(filename)
+
+	l, err := langs.NewLanguage(
+		"en",
+		"en",
+		"UTC",
+		langs.LanguageConfig{
+			LanguageName: "English",
+		},
+	)
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+
 	return &testPage{
 		params: make(map[string]any),
 		data:   make(map[string]any),
@@ -65,28 +75,8 @@ func newTestPageWithFile(filename string) *testPage {
 		currentSection: &testPage{
 			sectionEntries: []string{"a", "b", "c"},
 		},
-		site: testSite{l: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())},
-	}
-}
-
-func newTestPathSpec() *helpers.PathSpec {
-	return newTestPathSpecFor(config.New())
-}
-
-func newTestPathSpecFor(cfg config.Provider) *helpers.PathSpec {
-	config.SetBaseTestDefaults(cfg)
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(cfg, nil)
-	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-	cfg.Set("allModules", modules.Modules{mod})
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(cfg)
-	s, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
+		site: testSite{l: l},
 	}
-	return s
 }
 
 type testPage struct {
@@ -128,15 +118,15 @@ func (p *testPage) Err() resource.ResourceError {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Aliases() []string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) AllTranslations() Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) AlternativeOutputFormats() OutputFormats {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Author() Author {
@@ -148,19 +138,19 @@ func (p *testPage) Authors() AuthorList {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) BaseFileName() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) BundleType() files.ContentClass {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Content(context.Context) (any, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) ContentBaseName() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) CurrentSection() Page {
@@ -171,8 +161,8 @@ func (p *testPage) Data() any {
 	return p.data
 }
 
-func (p *testPage) Sitemap() config.Sitemap {
-	return config.Sitemap{}
+func (p *testPage) Sitemap() config.SitemapConfig {
+	return config.SitemapConfig{}
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Layout() string {
@@ -188,11 +178,11 @@ func (p *testPage) Description() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Dir() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Draft() bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Eq(other any) bool {
@@ -204,11 +194,11 @@ func (p *testPage) ExpiryDate() time.Time {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Ext() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Extension() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) File() source.File {
@@ -216,15 +206,15 @@ func (p *testPage) File() source.File {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) FileInfo() hugofs.FileMetaInfo {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Filename() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) FirstSection() Page {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) FuzzyWordCount(context.Context) int {
@@ -232,19 +222,19 @@ func (p *testPage) FuzzyWordCount(context.Context) int {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) GetPage(ref string) (Page, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) GetPageWithTemplateInfo(info tpl.Info, ref string) (Page, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) GetParam(key string) any {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) GetTerms(taxonomy string) Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) GetRelatedDocsHandler() *RelatedDocsHandler {
@@ -260,27 +250,27 @@ func (p *testPage) CodeOwners() []string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) HasMenuCurrent(menuID string, me *navigation.MenuEntry) bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) HasShortcode(name string) bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
-func (p *testPage) Hugo() hugo.Info {
-	panic("not implemented")
+func (p *testPage) Hugo() hugo.HugoInfo {
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) InSection(other any) (bool, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsAncestor(other any) (bool, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsDescendant(other any) (bool, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsDraft() bool {
@@ -288,27 +278,27 @@ func (p *testPage) IsDraft() bool {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsHome() bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsMenuCurrent(menuID string, inme *navigation.MenuEntry) bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsNode() bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsPage() bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsSection() bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) IsTranslated() bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Keywords() []string {
@@ -324,7 +314,7 @@ func (p *testPage) Lang() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Language() *langs.Language {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) LanguagePrefix() string {
@@ -358,11 +348,11 @@ func (p *testPage) LinkTitle() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) LogicalName() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) MediaType() media.Type {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Menus() navigation.PageMenus {
@@ -370,11 +360,11 @@ func (p *testPage) Menus() navigation.PageMenus {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Name() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Next() Page {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) NextInSection() Page {
@@ -386,19 +376,19 @@ func (p *testPage) NextPage() Page {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) OutputFormats() OutputFormats {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Pages() Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RegularPages() Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RegularPagesRecursive() Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Paginate(seq any, options ...any) (*Pager, error) {
@@ -422,11 +412,11 @@ func (p *testPage) Page() Page {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Parent() Page {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Ancestors() Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Path() string {
@@ -438,19 +428,19 @@ func (p *testPage) Pathc() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Permalink() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Plain(context.Context) string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) PlainWords(context.Context) []string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Prev() Page {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) PrevInSection() Page {
@@ -470,15 +460,15 @@ func (p *testPage) RSSLink() template.URL {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RawContent() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) ReadingTime(context.Context) int {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Ref(argsm map[string]any) (string, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RefFrom(argsm map[string]any, source any) (string, error) {
@@ -486,11 +476,11 @@ func (p *testPage) RefFrom(argsm map[string]any, source any) (string, error) {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RelPermalink() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RelRef(argsm map[string]any) (string, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RelRefFrom(argsm map[string]any, source any) (string, error) {
@@ -498,27 +488,27 @@ func (p *testPage) RelRefFrom(argsm map[string]any, source any) (string, error)
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Render(ctx context.Context, layout ...string) (template.HTML, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RenderString(ctx context.Context, args ...any) (template.HTML, error) {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) ResourceType() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Resources() resource.Resources {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Scratch() *maps.Scratch {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Store() *maps.Scratch {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) RelatedKeywords(cfg related.IndexConfig) ([]related.Keyword, error) {
@@ -535,7 +525,7 @@ func (p *testPage) Section() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Sections() Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) SectionsEntries() []string {
@@ -551,7 +541,7 @@ func (p *testPage) Site() Site {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Sites() Sites {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Slug() string {
@@ -563,11 +553,11 @@ func (p *testPage) String() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Summary(context.Context) template.HTML {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) TableOfContents(context.Context) template.HTML {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Title() string {
@@ -575,7 +565,7 @@ func (p *testPage) Title() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) TranslationBaseName() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) TranslationKey() string {
@@ -583,11 +573,11 @@ func (p *testPage) TranslationKey() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Translations() Pages {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Truncated(context.Context) bool {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Type() string {
@@ -599,7 +589,7 @@ func (p *testPage) URL() string {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) UniqueID() string {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) Weight() int {
@@ -607,11 +597,11 @@ func (p *testPage) Weight() int {
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) WordCount(context.Context) int {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func (p *testPage) GetIdentity() identity.Identity {
-	panic("not implemented")
+	panic("tespage: not implemented")
 }
 
 func createTestPages(num int) Pages {
diff --git a/resources/postpub/fields_test.go b/resources/postpub/fields_test.go
index 8e80063f1..336da1f0e 100644
--- a/resources/postpub/fields_test.go
+++ b/resources/postpub/fields_test.go
@@ -17,14 +17,13 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 )
 
 func TestCreatePlaceholders(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	m := structToMap(media.CSSType)
+	m := structToMap(media.Builtin.CSSType)
 
 	insertFieldPlaceholders("foo", m, func(s string) string {
 		return "pre_" + s + "_post"
@@ -34,6 +33,7 @@ func TestCreatePlaceholders(t *testing.T) {
 		"IsZero":      "pre_foo.IsZero_post",
 		"MarshalJSON": "pre_foo.MarshalJSON_post",
 		"Suffixes":    "pre_foo.Suffixes_post",
+		"SuffixesCSV": "pre_foo.SuffixesCSV_post",
 		"Delimiter":   "pre_foo.Delimiter_post",
 		"FirstSuffix": "pre_foo.FirstSuffix_post",
 		"IsText":      "pre_foo.IsText_post",
diff --git a/resources/resource.go b/resources/resource.go
index 94016154a..d1acc1026 100644
--- a/resources/resource.go
+++ b/resources/resource.go
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ type baseResourceInternal interface {
 
 	ReadSeekCloser() (hugio.ReadSeekCloser, error)
 
-	// Internal
+	// For internal use.
 	cloneWithUpdates(*transformationUpdate) (baseResource, error)
 	tryTransformedFileCache(key string, u *transformationUpdate) io.ReadCloser
 
@@ -274,10 +274,11 @@ func (l *genericResource) Data() any {
 }
 
 func (l *genericResource) Key() string {
-	if l.spec.BasePath == "" {
+	basePath := l.spec.Cfg.BaseURL().BasePath
+	if basePath == "" {
 		return l.RelPermalink()
 	}
-	return strings.TrimPrefix(l.RelPermalink(), l.spec.BasePath)
+	return strings.TrimPrefix(l.RelPermalink(), basePath)
 }
 
 func (l *genericResource) MediaType() media.Type {
@@ -297,7 +298,7 @@ func (l *genericResource) Params() maps.Params {
 }
 
 func (l *genericResource) Permalink() string {
-	return l.spec.PermalinkForBaseURL(l.relPermalinkForRel(l.relTargetDirFile.path(), true), l.spec.BaseURL.HostURL())
+	return l.spec.PermalinkForBaseURL(l.relPermalinkForRel(l.relTargetDirFile.path(), true), l.spec.Cfg.BaseURL().HostURL())
 }
 
 func (l *genericResource) Publish() error {
@@ -410,7 +411,7 @@ func (r *genericResource) tryTransformedFileCache(key string, u *transformationU
 		return nil
 	}
 	u.sourceFilename = &fi.Name
-	mt, _ := r.spec.MediaTypes.GetByType(meta.MediaTypeV)
+	mt, _ := r.spec.MediaTypes().GetByType(meta.MediaTypeV)
 	u.mediaType = mt
 	u.data = meta.MetaData
 	u.targetPath = meta.Target
@@ -506,7 +507,7 @@ func (r *genericResource) openPublishFileForWriting(relTargetPath string) (io.Wr
 }
 
 func (l *genericResource) permalinkFor(target string) string {
-	return l.spec.PermalinkForBaseURL(l.relPermalinkForRel(target, true), l.spec.BaseURL.HostURL())
+	return l.spec.PermalinkForBaseURL(l.relPermalinkForRel(target, true), l.spec.Cfg.BaseURL().HostURL())
 }
 
 func (l *genericResource) relPermalinkFor(target string) string {
diff --git a/resources/resource/resources.go b/resources/resource/resources.go
index a877c8906..795fe1934 100644
--- a/resources/resource/resources.go
+++ b/resources/resource/resources.go
@@ -144,6 +144,7 @@ func (r Resources) MergeByLanguage(r2 Resources) Resources {
 
 // MergeByLanguageInterface is the generic version of MergeByLanguage. It
 // is here just so it can be called from the tpl package.
+// This is for internal use.
 func (r Resources) MergeByLanguageInterface(in any) (any, error) {
 	r2, ok := in.(Resources)
 	if !ok {
diff --git a/resources/resource_cache.go b/resources/resource_cache.go
index 52a48871e..8b0b363c9 100644
--- a/resources/resource_cache.go
+++ b/resources/resource_cache.go
@@ -39,8 +39,6 @@ const (
 )
 
 type ResourceCache struct {
-	rs *Spec
-
 	sync.RWMutex
 
 	// Either resource.Resource or resource.Resources.
@@ -77,12 +75,12 @@ var extAliasKeywords = map[string][]string{
 // used to do resource cache invalidations.
 //
 // We use the first directory path element and the extension, so:
-//     a/b.json => "a", "json"
-//     b.json => "json"
+//
+//	a/b.json => "a", "json"
+//	b.json => "json"
 //
 // For some of the extensions we will also map to closely related types,
 // e.g. "scss" will also return "sass".
-//
 func ResourceKeyPartitions(filename string) []string {
 	var partitions []string
 	filename = glob.NormalizePath(filename)
@@ -124,15 +122,6 @@ func ResourceKeyContainsAny(key string, partitions []string) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-func newResourceCache(rs *Spec) *ResourceCache {
-	return &ResourceCache{
-		rs:        rs,
-		fileCache: rs.FileCaches.AssetsCache(),
-		cache:     make(map[string]any),
-		nlocker:   locker.NewLocker(),
-	}
-}
-
 func (c *ResourceCache) clear() {
 	c.Lock()
 	defer c.Unlock()
diff --git a/resources/resource_factories/bundler/bundler.go b/resources/resource_factories/bundler/bundler.go
index 7de228227..67f1f90fa 100644
--- a/resources/resource_factories/bundler/bundler.go
+++ b/resources/resource_factories/bundler/bundler.go
@@ -88,8 +88,8 @@ func (c *Client) Concat(targetPath string, r resource.Resources) (resource.Resou
 		// The given set of resources must be of the same Media Type.
 		// We may improve on that in the future, but then we need to know more.
 		for i, r := range r {
-			if i > 0 && r.MediaType().Type() != resolvedm.Type() {
-				return nil, fmt.Errorf("resources in Concat must be of the same Media Type, got %q and %q", r.MediaType().Type(), resolvedm.Type())
+			if i > 0 && r.MediaType().Type != resolvedm.Type {
+				return nil, fmt.Errorf("resources in Concat must be of the same Media Type, got %q and %q", r.MediaType().Type, resolvedm.Type)
 			}
 			resolvedm = r.MediaType()
 		}
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ func (c *Client) Concat(targetPath string, r resource.Resources) (resource.Resou
 
 			// Arbitrary JavaScript files require a barrier between them to be safely concatenated together.
 			// Without this, the last line of one file can affect the first line of the next file and change how both files are interpreted.
-			if resolvedm.MainType == media.JavascriptType.MainType && resolvedm.SubType == media.JavascriptType.SubType {
+			if resolvedm.MainType == media.Builtin.JavascriptType.MainType && resolvedm.SubType == media.Builtin.JavascriptType.SubType {
 				readers := make([]hugio.ReadSeekCloser, 2*len(rcsources)-1)
 				j := 0
 				for i := 0; i < len(rcsources); i++ {
diff --git a/resources/resource_factories/create/create.go b/resources/resource_factories/create/create.go
index b8ac5bb34..2e4721299 100644
--- a/resources/resource_factories/create/create.go
+++ b/resources/resource_factories/create/create.go
@@ -136,6 +136,7 @@ func (c *Client) match(name, pattern string, matchFunc func(r resource.Resource)
 }
 
 // FromString creates a new Resource from a string with the given relative target path.
+// TODO(bep) see #10912; we currently emit a warning for this config scenario.
 func (c *Client) FromString(targetPath, content string) (resource.Resource, error) {
 	return c.rs.ResourceCache.GetOrCreate(path.Join(resources.CACHE_OTHER, targetPath), func() (resource.Resource, error) {
 		return c.rs.New(
diff --git a/resources/resource_factories/create/remote.go b/resources/resource_factories/create/remote.go
index 7310569f9..3aae57e8d 100644
--- a/resources/resource_factories/create/remote.go
+++ b/resources/resource_factories/create/remote.go
@@ -197,7 +197,7 @@ func (c *Client) FromRemote(uri string, optionsm map[string]any) (resource.Resou
 		}
 
 		// Now resolve the media type primarily using the content.
-		mediaType = media.FromContent(c.rs.MediaTypes, extensionHints, body)
+		mediaType = media.FromContent(c.rs.MediaTypes(), extensionHints, body)
 
 	}
 
diff --git a/resources/resource_metadata_test.go b/resources/resource_metadata_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index fa9659162..000000000
--- a/resources/resource_metadata_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,221 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-
-package resources
-
-import (
-	"testing"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
-
-	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-)
-
-func TestAssignMetadata(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-
-	var foo1, foo2, foo3, logo1, logo2, logo3 resource.Resource
-	var resources resource.Resources
-
-	for _, this := range []struct {
-		metaData   []map[string]any
-		assertFunc func(err error)
-	}{
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "My Resource",
-				"name":  "My Name",
-				"src":   "*",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			c.Assert(logo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "My Resource")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Name(), qt.Equals, "My Name")
-			c.Assert(foo2.Name(), qt.Equals, "My Name")
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "My Logo",
-				"src":   "*loGo*",
-			},
-			{
-				"title": "My Resource",
-				"name":  "My Name",
-				"src":   "*",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			c.Assert(logo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "My Logo")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Title(), qt.Equals, "My Logo")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Name(), qt.Equals, "My Name")
-			c.Assert(foo2.Name(), qt.Equals, "My Name")
-			c.Assert(foo3.Name(), qt.Equals, "My Name")
-			c.Assert(foo3.Title(), qt.Equals, "My Resource")
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "My Logo",
-				"src":   "*loGo*",
-				"params": map[string]any{
-					"Param1": true,
-					"icon":   "logo",
-				},
-			},
-			{
-				"title": "My Resource",
-				"src":   "*",
-				"params": map[string]any{
-					"Param2": true,
-					"icon":   "resource",
-				},
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(logo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "My Logo")
-			c.Assert(foo3.Title(), qt.Equals, "My Resource")
-			_, p1 := logo2.Params()["param1"]
-			_, p2 := foo2.Params()["param2"]
-			_, p1_2 := foo2.Params()["param1"]
-			_, p2_2 := logo2.Params()["param2"]
-
-			icon1 := logo2.Params()["icon"]
-			icon2 := foo2.Params()["icon"]
-
-			c.Assert(p1, qt.Equals, true)
-			c.Assert(p2, qt.Equals, true)
-
-			// Check merge
-			c.Assert(p2_2, qt.Equals, true)
-			c.Assert(p1_2, qt.Equals, false)
-
-			c.Assert(icon1, qt.Equals, "logo")
-			c.Assert(icon2, qt.Equals, "resource")
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"name": "Logo Name #:counter",
-				"src":  "*logo*",
-			},
-			{
-				"title": "Resource #:counter",
-				"name":  "Name #:counter",
-				"src":   "*",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(logo2.Title(), qt.Equals, "Resource #2")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Name(), qt.Equals, "Logo Name #1")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "Resource #4")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Name(), qt.Equals, "Logo Name #2")
-			c.Assert(foo2.Title(), qt.Equals, "Resource #1")
-			c.Assert(foo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "Resource #3")
-			c.Assert(foo1.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #2")
-			c.Assert(foo3.Title(), qt.Equals, "Resource #5")
-
-			c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("logo name #1*"), qt.Equals, logo2)
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "Third Logo #:counter",
-				"src":   "logo3.png",
-			},
-			{
-				"title": "Other Logo #:counter",
-				"name":  "Name #:counter",
-				"src":   "logo*",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(logo3.Title(), qt.Equals, "Third Logo #1")
-			c.Assert(logo3.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #3")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Title(), qt.Equals, "Other Logo #1")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #1")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "Other Logo #2")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #2")
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "Third Logo",
-				"src":   "logo3.png",
-			},
-			{
-				"title": "Other Logo #:counter",
-				"name":  "Name #:counter",
-				"src":   "logo*",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(logo3.Title(), qt.Equals, "Third Logo")
-			c.Assert(logo3.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #3")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Title(), qt.Equals, "Other Logo #1")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #1")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "Other Logo #2")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #2")
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"name": "third-logo",
-				"src":  "logo3.png",
-			},
-			{
-				"title": "Logo #:counter",
-				"name":  "Name #:counter",
-				"src":   "logo*",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-			c.Assert(logo3.Title(), qt.Equals, "Logo #3")
-			c.Assert(logo3.Name(), qt.Equals, "third-logo")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Title(), qt.Equals, "Logo #1")
-			c.Assert(logo2.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #1")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Title(), qt.Equals, "Logo #2")
-			c.Assert(logo1.Name(), qt.Equals, "Name #2")
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "Third Logo #:counter",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			// Missing src
-			c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		}},
-		{[]map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "Title",
-				"src":   "[]",
-			},
-		}, func(err error) {
-			// Invalid pattern
-			c.Assert(err, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-		}},
-	} {
-
-		foo2 = spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/foo2.css", "foo2.css", media.CSSType)
-		logo2 = spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/Logo2.png", "Logo2.png", pngType)
-		foo1 = spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/foo1.css", "foo1.css", media.CSSType)
-		logo1 = spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/logo1.png", "logo1.png", pngType)
-		foo3 = spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/foo3.css", "foo3.css", media.CSSType)
-		logo3 = spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/logo3.png", "logo3.png", pngType)
-
-		resources = resource.Resources{
-			foo2,
-			logo2,
-			foo1,
-			logo1,
-			foo3,
-			logo3,
-		}
-
-		this.assertFunc(AssignMetadata(this.metaData, resources...))
-	}
-}
diff --git a/resources/resource_spec.go b/resources/resource_spec.go
index 8ef693183..4d2ceccb3 100644
--- a/resources/resource_spec.go
+++ b/resources/resource_spec.go
@@ -23,12 +23,15 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 
+	"github.com/BurntSushi/locker"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/allconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/jsconfig"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
@@ -38,7 +41,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/images"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
@@ -48,18 +50,20 @@ import (
 
 func NewSpec(
 	s *helpers.PathSpec,
-	fileCaches filecache.Caches,
+	common *SpecCommon, // may be nil
 	incr identity.Incrementer,
 	logger loggers.Logger,
 	errorHandler herrors.ErrorSender,
-	execHelper *hexec.Exec,
-	outputFormats output.Formats,
-	mimeTypes media.Types) (*Spec, error) {
-	imgConfig, err := images.DecodeConfig(s.Cfg.GetStringMap("imaging"))
+	execHelper *hexec.Exec) (*Spec, error) {
+
+	fileCaches, err := filecache.NewCaches(s)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create file caches from configuration: %w", err)
 	}
 
+	conf := s.Cfg.GetConfig().(*allconfig.Config)
+	imgConfig := conf.Imaging
+
 	imaging, err := images.NewImageProcessor(imgConfig)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -73,35 +77,43 @@ func NewSpec(
 		logger = loggers.NewErrorLogger()
 	}
 
-	permalinks, err := page.NewPermalinkExpander(s)
+	permalinks, err := page.NewPermalinkExpander(s.URLize, conf.Permalinks)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	rs := &Spec{
-		PathSpec:      s,
-		Logger:        logger,
-		ErrorSender:   errorHandler,
-		imaging:       imaging,
-		ExecHelper:    execHelper,
-		incr:          incr,
-		MediaTypes:    mimeTypes,
-		OutputFormats: outputFormats,
-		Permalinks:    permalinks,
-		BuildConfig:   config.DecodeBuild(s.Cfg),
-		FileCaches:    fileCaches,
-		PostBuildAssets: &PostBuildAssets{
-			PostProcessResources: make(map[string]postpub.PostPublishedResource),
-			JSConfigBuilder:      jsconfig.NewBuilder(),
-		},
-		imageCache: newImageCache(
-			fileCaches.ImageCache(),
-
-			s,
-		),
+	if common == nil {
+		common = &SpecCommon{
+			incr:       incr,
+			FileCaches: fileCaches,
+			PostBuildAssets: &PostBuildAssets{
+				PostProcessResources: make(map[string]postpub.PostPublishedResource),
+				JSConfigBuilder:      jsconfig.NewBuilder(),
+			},
+			imageCache: newImageCache(
+				fileCaches.ImageCache(),
+
+				s,
+			),
+			ResourceCache: &ResourceCache{
+				fileCache: fileCaches.AssetsCache(),
+				cache:     make(map[string]any),
+				nlocker:   locker.NewLocker(),
+			},
+		}
 	}
 
-	rs.ResourceCache = newResourceCache(rs)
+	rs := &Spec{
+		PathSpec:    s,
+		Logger:      logger,
+		ErrorSender: errorHandler,
+		imaging:     imaging,
+		ExecHelper:  execHelper,
+
+		Permalinks: permalinks,
+
+		SpecCommon: common,
+	}
 
 	return rs, nil
 }
@@ -109,22 +121,23 @@ func NewSpec(
 type Spec struct {
 	*helpers.PathSpec
 
-	MediaTypes    media.Types
-	OutputFormats output.Formats
-
 	Logger      loggers.Logger
 	ErrorSender herrors.ErrorSender
 
 	TextTemplates tpl.TemplateParseFinder
 
-	Permalinks  page.PermalinkExpander
-	BuildConfig config.Build
+	Permalinks page.PermalinkExpander
 
 	// Holds default filter settings etc.
 	imaging *images.ImageProcessor
 
 	ExecHelper *hexec.Exec
 
+	*SpecCommon
+}
+
+// The parts of Spec that's comoon for all sites.
+type SpecCommon struct {
 	incr          identity.Incrementer
 	imageCache    *imageCache
 	ResourceCache *ResourceCache
@@ -145,6 +158,18 @@ func (r *Spec) New(fd ResourceSourceDescriptor) (resource.Resource, error) {
 	return r.newResourceFor(fd)
 }
 
+func (r *Spec) MediaTypes() media.Types {
+	return r.Cfg.GetConfigSection("mediaTypes").(media.Types)
+}
+
+func (r *Spec) OutputFormats() output.Formats {
+	return r.Cfg.GetConfigSection("outputFormats").(output.Formats)
+}
+
+func (r *Spec) BuildConfig() config.BuildConfig {
+	return r.Cfg.GetConfigSection("build").(config.BuildConfig)
+}
+
 func (r *Spec) CacheStats() string {
 	r.imageCache.mu.RLock()
 	defer r.imageCache.mu.RUnlock()
@@ -283,11 +308,11 @@ func (r *Spec) newResource(sourceFs afero.Fs, fd ResourceSourceDescriptor) (reso
 			found      bool
 			suffixInfo media.SuffixInfo
 		)
-		mimeType, suffixInfo, found = r.MediaTypes.GetFirstBySuffix(strings.TrimPrefix(ext, "."))
+		mimeType, suffixInfo, found = r.MediaTypes().GetFirstBySuffix(strings.TrimPrefix(ext, "."))
 		// TODO(bep) we need to handle these ambiguous types better, but in this context
 		// we most likely want the application/xml type.
 		if suffixInfo.Suffix == "xml" && mimeType.SubType == "rss" {
-			mimeType, found = r.MediaTypes.GetByType("application/xml")
+			mimeType, found = r.MediaTypes().GetByType("application/xml")
 		}
 
 		if !found {
@@ -322,7 +347,6 @@ func (r *Spec) newResource(sourceFs afero.Fs, fd ResourceSourceDescriptor) (reso
 			ir.root = ir
 			return newResourceAdapter(gr.spec, fd.LazyPublish, ir), nil
 		}
-
 	}
 
 	return newResourceAdapter(gr.spec, fd.LazyPublish, gr), nil
diff --git a/resources/resource_test.go b/resources/resource_test.go
index 031c7b3c6..d6065c248 100644
--- a/resources/resource_test.go
+++ b/resources/resource_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,59 +11,26 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package resources
+package resources_test
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
-	"math/rand"
-	"path/filepath"
-	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
-func TestGenericResource(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-
-	r := spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/foo.css", "foo.css", media.CSSType)
-
-	c.Assert(r.Permalink(), qt.Equals, "https://example.com/foo.css")
-	c.Assert(r.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo.css")
-	c.Assert(r.ResourceType(), qt.Equals, "text")
-}
-
-func TestGenericResourceWithLinkFactory(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-
-	factory := newTargetPaths("/foo")
-
-	r := spec.newGenericResource(nil, factory, nil, "/a/foo.css", "foo.css", media.CSSType)
-
-	c.Assert(r.Permalink(), qt.Equals, "https://example.com/foo/foo.css")
-	c.Assert(r.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo/foo.css")
-	c.Assert(r.Key(), qt.Equals, "/foo/foo.css")
-	c.Assert(r.ResourceType(), qt.Equals, "text")
-}
-
 func TestNewResourceFromFilename(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
 
-	writeSource(t, spec.Fs, "content/a/b/logo.png", "image")
-	writeSource(t, spec.Fs, "content/a/b/data.json", "json")
-
-	bfs := afero.NewBasePathFs(spec.Fs.Source, "content")
+	writeSource(t, spec.Fs, "assets/a/b/logo.png", "image")
+	writeSource(t, spec.Fs, "assets/a/b/data.json", "json")
 
-	r, err := spec.New(ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: bfs, SourceFilename: "a/b/logo.png"})
+	r, err := spec.New(resources.ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: spec.BaseFs.Assets.Fs, SourceFilename: "a/b/logo.png"})
 
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(r, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
@@ -71,200 +38,11 @@ func TestNewResourceFromFilename(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(r.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/a/b/logo.png")
 	c.Assert(r.Permalink(), qt.Equals, "https://example.com/a/b/logo.png")
 
-	r, err = spec.New(ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: bfs, SourceFilename: "a/b/data.json"})
+	r, err = spec.New(resources.ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: spec.BaseFs.Assets.Fs, SourceFilename: "a/b/data.json"})
 
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(r, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 	c.Assert(r.ResourceType(), qt.Equals, "application")
 }
 
-func TestNewResourceFromFilenameSubPathInBaseURL(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c, baseURL: "https://example.com/docs"})
-
-	writeSource(t, spec.Fs, "content/a/b/logo.png", "image")
-	bfs := afero.NewBasePathFs(spec.Fs.Source, "content")
-
-	fmt.Println()
-	r, err := spec.New(ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: bfs, SourceFilename: filepath.FromSlash("a/b/logo.png")})
-
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(r, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(r.ResourceType(), qt.Equals, "image")
-	c.Assert(r.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/docs/a/b/logo.png")
-	c.Assert(r.Permalink(), qt.Equals, "https://example.com/docs/a/b/logo.png")
-}
-
 var pngType, _ = media.FromStringAndExt("image/png", "png")
-
-func TestResourcesByType(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-	resources := resource.Resources{
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/foo1.css", "foo1.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/logo.png", "logo.css", pngType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/foo2.css", "foo2.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/foo3.css", "foo3.css", media.CSSType),
-	}
-
-	c.Assert(len(resources.ByType("text")), qt.Equals, 3)
-	c.Assert(len(resources.ByType("image")), qt.Equals, 1)
-}
-
-func TestResourcesGetByPrefix(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-	resources := resource.Resources{
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/foo1.css", "foo1.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/logo1.png", "logo1.png", pngType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/Logo2.png", "Logo2.png", pngType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/foo2.css", "foo2.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/foo3.css", "foo3.css", media.CSSType),
-	}
-
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("asdf*"), qt.IsNil)
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("logo*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/logo1.png")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("loGo*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/logo1.png")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("logo2*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/Logo2.png")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("foo2*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo2.css")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("foo1*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo1.css")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("foo1*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo1.css")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("asdfasdf*"), qt.IsNil)
-
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("logo*")), qt.Equals, 2)
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("logo2*")), qt.Equals, 1)
-
-	logo := resources.GetMatch("logo*")
-	c.Assert(logo.Params(), qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(logo.Name(), qt.Equals, "logo1.png")
-	c.Assert(logo.Title(), qt.Equals, "logo1.png")
-}
-
-func TestResourcesGetMatch(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-	resources := resource.Resources{
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/foo1.css", "foo1.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/logo1.png", "logo1.png", pngType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/Logo2.png", "Logo2.png", pngType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/foo2.css", "foo2.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/foo3.css", "foo3.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/c/foo4.css", "c/foo4.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/c/foo5.css", "c/foo5.css", media.CSSType),
-		spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/c/d/foo6.css", "c/d/foo6.css", media.CSSType),
-	}
-
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("logo*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/logo1.png")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("loGo*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/logo1.png")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("logo2*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/Logo2.png")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("foo2*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo2.css")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("foo1*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo1.css")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("foo1*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/foo1.css")
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("*/foo*").RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/c/foo4.css")
-
-	c.Assert(resources.GetMatch("asdfasdf"), qt.IsNil)
-
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("Logo*")), qt.Equals, 2)
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("logo2*")), qt.Equals, 1)
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("c/*")), qt.Equals, 2)
-
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("**.css")), qt.Equals, 6)
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("**/*.css")), qt.Equals, 3)
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("c/**/*.css")), qt.Equals, 1)
-
-	// Matches only CSS files in c/
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("c/**.css")), qt.Equals, 3)
-
-	// Matches all CSS files below c/ (including in c/d/)
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("c/**.css")), qt.Equals, 3)
-
-	// Patterns beginning with a slash will not match anything.
-	// We could maybe consider trimming that slash, but let's be explicit about this.
-	// (it is possible for users to do a rename)
-	// This is analogous to standing in a directory and doing "ls *.*".
-	c.Assert(len(resources.Match("/c/**.css")), qt.Equals, 0)
-}
-
-func BenchmarkResourcesMatch(b *testing.B) {
-	resources := benchResources(b)
-	prefixes := []string{"abc*", "jkl*", "nomatch*", "sub/*"}
-
-	b.RunParallel(func(pb *testing.PB) {
-		for pb.Next() {
-			resources.Match(prefixes[rand.Intn(len(prefixes))])
-		}
-	})
-}
-
-// This adds a benchmark for the a100 test case as described by Russ Cox here:
-// https://research.swtch.com/glob (really interesting article)
-// I don't expect Hugo users to "stumble upon" this problem, so this is more to satisfy
-// my own curiosity.
-func BenchmarkResourcesMatchA100(b *testing.B) {
-	c := qt.New(b)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-	a100 := strings.Repeat("a", 100)
-	pattern := "a*a*a*a*a*a*a*a*b"
-
-	resources := resource.Resources{spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/"+a100, a100, media.CSSType)}
-
-	b.ResetTimer()
-	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-		resources.Match(pattern)
-	}
-}
-
-func benchResources(b *testing.B) resource.Resources {
-	c := qt.New(b)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-	var resources resource.Resources
-
-	for i := 0; i < 30; i++ {
-		name := fmt.Sprintf("abcde%d_%d.css", i%5, i)
-		resources = append(resources, spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/"+name, name, media.CSSType))
-	}
-
-	for i := 0; i < 30; i++ {
-		name := fmt.Sprintf("efghi%d_%d.css", i%5, i)
-		resources = append(resources, spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/"+name, name, media.CSSType))
-	}
-
-	for i := 0; i < 30; i++ {
-		name := fmt.Sprintf("jklmn%d_%d.css", i%5, i)
-		resources = append(resources, spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/b/sub/"+name, "sub/"+name, media.CSSType))
-	}
-
-	return resources
-}
-
-func BenchmarkAssignMetadata(b *testing.B) {
-	c := qt.New(b)
-	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-
-	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-		b.StopTimer()
-		var resources resource.Resources
-		meta := []map[string]any{
-			{
-				"title": "Foo #:counter",
-				"name":  "Foo Name #:counter",
-				"src":   "foo1*",
-			},
-			{
-				"title": "Rest #:counter",
-				"name":  "Rest Name #:counter",
-				"src":   "*",
-			},
-		}
-		for i := 0; i < 20; i++ {
-			name := fmt.Sprintf("foo%d_%d.css", i%5, i)
-			resources = append(resources, spec.newGenericResource(nil, nil, nil, "/a/"+name, name, media.CSSType))
-		}
-		b.StartTimer()
-
-		if err := AssignMetadata(meta, resources...); err != nil {
-			b.Fatal(err)
-		}
-
-	}
-}
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/babel/babel.go b/resources/resource_transformers/babel/babel.go
index 89d74d9ed..ff19d9dda 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/babel/babel.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/babel/babel.go
@@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ func (t *babelTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx
 	stderr := io.MultiWriter(infoW, &errBuf)
 	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithStderr(stderr))
 	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithStdout(stderr))
-	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithEnviron(hugo.GetExecEnviron(t.rs.WorkingDir, t.rs.Cfg, t.rs.BaseFs.Assets.Fs)))
+	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithEnviron(hugo.GetExecEnviron(t.rs.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir, t.rs.Cfg, t.rs.BaseFs.Assets.Fs)))
 
 	defer os.Remove(compileOutput.Name())
 
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go b/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go
index 3c91fc0dd..75ae4245e 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/htesting/testhelpers.go
@@ -16,18 +16,16 @@ package htesting
 import (
 	"path/filepath"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
 func NewTestResourceSpec() (*resources.Spec, error) {
-	cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	cfg := config.New()
 
 	imagingCfg := map[string]any{
 		"resampleFilter": "linear",
@@ -36,20 +34,16 @@ func NewTestResourceSpec() (*resources.Spec, error) {
 	}
 
 	cfg.Set("imaging", imagingCfg)
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewMemMapFs()), cfg)
-
-	s, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	filecaches, err := filecache.NewCaches(s)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, cfg)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afs), conf.BaseConfig())
+	s, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, conf, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	spec, err := resources.NewSpec(s, filecaches, nil, nil, nil, nil, output.DefaultFormats, media.DefaultTypes)
+	spec, err := resources.NewSpec(s, nil, nil, nil, nil, nil)
 	return spec, err
 }
 
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/js/build.go b/resources/resource_transformers/js/build.go
index 34bc2cc12..949cd4fcb 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/js/build.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/js/build.go
@@ -27,12 +27,12 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/text"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/filesystems"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/internal"
 
 	"github.com/evanw/esbuild/pkg/api"
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ func (t *buildTransformation) Key() internal.ResourceTransformationKey {
 }
 
 func (t *buildTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
-	ctx.OutMediaType = media.JavascriptType
+	ctx.OutMediaType = media.Builtin.JavascriptType
 
 	opts, err := decodeOptions(t.optsm)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ func (t *buildTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx
 	}
 
 	opts.sourceDir = filepath.FromSlash(path.Dir(ctx.SourcePath))
-	opts.resolveDir = t.c.rs.WorkingDir // where node_modules gets resolved
+	opts.resolveDir = t.c.rs.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir // where node_modules gets resolved
 	opts.contents = string(src)
 	opts.mediaType = ctx.InMediaType
 
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/js/options.go b/resources/resource_transformers/js/options.go
index 8b40648e7..1f57709cd 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/js/options.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/js/options.go
@@ -337,20 +337,20 @@ func toBuildOptions(opts Options) (buildOptions api.BuildOptions, err error) {
 
 	mediaType := opts.mediaType
 	if mediaType.IsZero() {
-		mediaType = media.JavascriptType
+		mediaType = media.Builtin.JavascriptType
 	}
 
 	var loader api.Loader
 	switch mediaType.SubType {
 	// TODO(bep) ESBuild support a set of other loaders, but I currently fail
 	// to see the relevance. That may change as we start using this.
-	case media.JavascriptType.SubType:
+	case media.Builtin.JavascriptType.SubType:
 		loader = api.LoaderJS
-	case media.TypeScriptType.SubType:
+	case media.Builtin.TypeScriptType.SubType:
 		loader = api.LoaderTS
-	case media.TSXType.SubType:
+	case media.Builtin.TSXType.SubType:
 		loader = api.LoaderTSX
-	case media.JSXType.SubType:
+	case media.Builtin.JSXType.SubType:
 		loader = api.LoaderJSX
 	default:
 		err = fmt.Errorf("unsupported Media Type: %q", opts.mediaType)
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/js/options_test.go b/resources/resource_transformers/js/options_test.go
index 135164d18..a76a24caa 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/js/options_test.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/js/options_test.go
@@ -18,11 +18,10 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-
 	"github.com/evanw/esbuild/pkg/api"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
@@ -46,7 +45,7 @@ func TestOptionKey(t *testing.T) {
 func TestToBuildOptions(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	opts, err := toBuildOptions(Options{mediaType: media.JavascriptType})
+	opts, err := toBuildOptions(Options{mediaType: media.Builtin.JavascriptType})
 
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(opts, qt.DeepEquals, api.BuildOptions{
@@ -62,7 +61,7 @@ func TestToBuildOptions(t *testing.T) {
 		Target:    "es2018",
 		Format:    "cjs",
 		Minify:    true,
-		mediaType: media.JavascriptType,
+		mediaType: media.Builtin.JavascriptType,
 		AvoidTDZ:  true,
 	})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -79,7 +78,7 @@ func TestToBuildOptions(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	opts, err = toBuildOptions(Options{
-		Target: "es2018", Format: "cjs", Minify: true, mediaType: media.JavascriptType,
+		Target: "es2018", Format: "cjs", Minify: true, mediaType: media.Builtin.JavascriptType,
 		SourceMap: "inline",
 	})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -97,7 +96,7 @@ func TestToBuildOptions(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	opts, err = toBuildOptions(Options{
-		Target: "es2018", Format: "cjs", Minify: true, mediaType: media.JavascriptType,
+		Target: "es2018", Format: "cjs", Minify: true, mediaType: media.Builtin.JavascriptType,
 		SourceMap: "inline",
 	})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -115,7 +114,7 @@ func TestToBuildOptions(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	opts, err = toBuildOptions(Options{
-		Target: "es2018", Format: "cjs", Minify: true, mediaType: media.JavascriptType,
+		Target: "es2018", Format: "cjs", Minify: true, mediaType: media.Builtin.JavascriptType,
 		SourceMap: "external",
 	})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/minifier/minify.go b/resources/resource_transformers/minifier/minify.go
index c00d478af..872d284c6 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/minifier/minify.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/minifier/minify.go
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ type Client struct {
 // New creates a new Client given a specification. Note that it is the media types
 // configured for the site that is used to match files to the correct minifier.
 func New(rs *resources.Spec) (*Client, error) {
-	m, err := minifiers.New(rs.MediaTypes, rs.OutputFormats, rs.Cfg)
+	m, err := minifiers.New(rs.MediaTypes(), rs.OutputFormats(), rs.Cfg)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/postcss/postcss.go b/resources/resource_transformers/postcss/postcss.go
index b4234bcf8..376d72182 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/postcss/postcss.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/postcss/postcss.go
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ func (t *postcssTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationC
 	stderr := io.MultiWriter(infoW, &errBuf)
 	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithStderr(stderr))
 	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithStdout(ctx.To))
-	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithEnviron(hugo.GetExecEnviron(t.rs.WorkingDir, t.rs.Cfg, t.rs.BaseFs.Assets.Fs)))
+	cmdArgs = append(cmdArgs, hexec.WithEnviron(hugo.GetExecEnviron(t.rs.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir, t.rs.Cfg, t.rs.BaseFs.Assets.Fs)))
 
 	cmd, err := ex.Npx(binaryName, cmdArgs...)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -382,10 +382,13 @@ func (imp *importResolver) resolve() (io.Reader, error) {
 // See https://www.w3schools.com/cssref/pr_import_rule.asp
 // We currently only support simple file imports, no urls, no media queries.
 // So this is OK:
-//     @import "navigation.css";
+//
+//	@import "navigation.css";
+//
 // This is not:
-//     @import url("navigation.css");
-//     @import "mobstyle.css" screen and (max-width: 768px);
+//
+//	@import url("navigation.css");
+//	@import "mobstyle.css" screen and (max-width: 768px);
 func (imp *importResolver) shouldImport(s string) bool {
 	if !strings.HasPrefix(s, importIdentifier) {
 		return false
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/dartsass/transform.go b/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/dartsass/transform.go
index fdf4d8ef3..61ea54437 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/dartsass/transform.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/dartsass/transform.go
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ func (t *transform) Key() internal.ResourceTransformationKey {
 }
 
 func (t *transform) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
-	ctx.OutMediaType = media.CSSType
+	ctx.OutMediaType = media.Builtin.CSSType
 
 	opts, err := decodeOptions(t.optsm)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ func (t *transform) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 		}
 	}
 
-	if ctx.InMediaType.SubType == media.SASSType.SubType {
+	if ctx.InMediaType.SubType == media.Builtin.SASSType.SubType {
 		args.SourceSyntax = godartsass.SourceSyntaxSASS
 	}
 
diff --git a/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/scss/tocss.go b/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/scss/tocss.go
index 7e44f327e..1018ea02e 100644
--- a/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/scss/tocss.go
+++ b/resources/resource_transformers/tocss/scss/tocss.go
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ func Supports() bool {
 }
 
 func (t *toCSSTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
-	ctx.OutMediaType = media.CSSType
+	ctx.OutMediaType = media.Builtin.CSSType
 
 	var outName string
 	if t.options.from.TargetPath != "" {
@@ -124,14 +124,14 @@ func (t *toCSSTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx
 		return "", "", false
 	}
 
-	if ctx.InMediaType.SubType == media.SASSType.SubType {
+	if ctx.InMediaType.SubType == media.Builtin.SASSType.SubType {
 		options.to.SassSyntax = true
 	}
 
 	if options.from.EnableSourceMap {
 
 		options.to.SourceMapOptions.Filename = outName + ".map"
-		options.to.SourceMapOptions.Root = t.c.rs.WorkingDir
+		options.to.SourceMapOptions.Root = t.c.rs.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir
 
 		// Setting this to the relative input filename will get the source map
 		// more correct for the main entry path (main.scss typically), but
@@ -159,8 +159,8 @@ func (t *toCSSTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx
 	if options.from.EnableSourceMap && res.SourceMapContent != "" {
 		sourcePath := t.c.sfs.RealFilename(ctx.SourcePath)
 
-		if strings.HasPrefix(sourcePath, t.c.rs.WorkingDir) {
-			sourcePath = strings.TrimPrefix(sourcePath, t.c.rs.WorkingDir+helpers.FilePathSeparator)
+		if strings.HasPrefix(sourcePath, t.c.rs.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir) {
+			sourcePath = strings.TrimPrefix(sourcePath, t.c.rs.Cfg.BaseConfig().WorkingDir+helpers.FilePathSeparator)
 		}
 
 		// This needs to be Unix-style slashes, even on Windows.
diff --git a/resources/testhelpers_test.go b/resources/testhelpers_test.go
index 09268402e..1de2f54f6 100644
--- a/resources/testhelpers_test.go
+++ b/resources/testhelpers_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package resources
+package resources_test
 
 import (
 	"image"
@@ -10,15 +10,13 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/images"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/resource"
@@ -31,28 +29,7 @@ type specDescriptor struct {
 	fs      afero.Fs
 }
 
-func createTestCfg() config.Provider {
-	cfg := config.New()
-	cfg.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	cfg.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	cfg.Set("dataDir", "data")
-	cfg.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	cfg.Set("layoutDir", "layouts")
-	cfg.Set("assetDir", "assets")
-	cfg.Set("archetypeDir", "archetypes")
-	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
-
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(cfg, nil)
-	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-	cfg.Set("allModules", modules.Modules{mod})
-
-	return cfg
-}
-
-func newTestResourceSpec(desc specDescriptor) *Spec {
+func newTestResourceSpec(desc specDescriptor) *resources.Spec {
 	baseURL := desc.baseURL
 	if baseURL == "" {
 		baseURL = "https://example.com/"
@@ -63,12 +40,17 @@ func newTestResourceSpec(desc specDescriptor) *Spec {
 		afs = afero.NewMemMapFs()
 	}
 
-	afs = hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afs)
+	if hugofs.IsOsFs(afs) {
+		panic("osFs not supported for this test")
+	}
 
-	c := desc.c
+	if err := afs.MkdirAll("assets", 0755); err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
 
-	cfg := createTestCfg()
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", baseURL)
+	cfg.Set("publishDir", "public")
 
 	imagingCfg := map[string]any{
 		"resampleFilter": "linear",
@@ -77,19 +59,12 @@ func newTestResourceSpec(desc specDescriptor) *Spec {
 	}
 
 	cfg.Set("imaging", imagingCfg)
+	d := testconfig.GetTestDeps(
+		afs, cfg,
+		func(d *deps.Deps) { d.Fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(d.Fs.PublishDir) },
+	)
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, cfg)
-	fs.PublishDir = hugofs.NewCreateCountingFs(fs.PublishDir)
-
-	s, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg, nil)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	filecaches, err := filecache.NewCaches(s)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	spec, err := NewSpec(s, filecaches, nil, nil, nil, nil, output.DefaultFormats, media.DefaultTypes)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	return spec
+	return d.ResourceSpec
 }
 
 func newTargetPaths(link string) func() page.TargetPaths {
@@ -101,8 +76,8 @@ func newTargetPaths(link string) func() page.TargetPaths {
 	}
 }
 
-func newTestResourceOsFs(c *qt.C) (*Spec, string) {
-	cfg := createTestCfg()
+func newTestResourceOsFs(c *qt.C) (*resources.Spec, string) {
+	cfg := config.New()
 	cfg.Set("baseURL", "https://example.com")
 
 	workDir, err := os.MkdirTemp("", "hugores")
@@ -117,50 +92,37 @@ func newTestResourceOsFs(c *qt.C) (*Spec, string) {
 
 	cfg.Set("workingDir", workDir)
 
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(hugofs.Os), cfg)
-
-	s, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg, nil)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-
-	filecaches, err := filecache.NewCaches(s)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workDir, "assets"), 0755)
 
-	spec, err := NewSpec(s, filecaches, nil, nil, nil, nil, output.DefaultFormats, media.DefaultTypes)
-	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+	d := testconfig.GetTestDeps(hugofs.Os, cfg)
 
-	return spec, workDir
+	return d.ResourceSpec, workDir
 }
 
-func fetchSunset(c *qt.C) images.ImageResource {
+func fetchSunset(c *qt.C) (*resources.Spec, images.ImageResource) {
 	return fetchImage(c, "sunset.jpg")
 }
 
-func fetchImage(c *qt.C, name string) images.ImageResource {
+func fetchImage(c *qt.C, name string) (*resources.Spec, images.ImageResource) {
 	spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
-	return fetchImageForSpec(spec, c, name)
+	return spec, fetchImageForSpec(spec, c, name)
 }
 
-func fetchImageForSpec(spec *Spec, c *qt.C, name string) images.ImageResource {
+func fetchImageForSpec(spec *resources.Spec, c *qt.C, name string) images.ImageResource {
 	r := fetchResourceForSpec(spec, c, name)
-
 	img := r.(images.ImageResource)
-
 	c.Assert(img, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-	c.Assert(img.(specProvider).getSpec(), qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
-
 	return img
 }
 
-func fetchResourceForSpec(spec *Spec, c *qt.C, name string, targetPathAddends ...string) resource.ContentResource {
+func fetchResourceForSpec(spec *resources.Spec, c *qt.C, name string, targetPathAddends ...string) resource.ContentResource {
 	src, err := os.Open(filepath.FromSlash("testdata/" + name))
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-	workDir := spec.WorkingDir
 	if len(targetPathAddends) > 0 {
 		addends := strings.Join(targetPathAddends, "_")
 		name = addends + "_" + name
 	}
-	targetFilename := filepath.Join(workDir, name)
-	out, err := helpers.OpenFileForWriting(spec.Fs.Source, targetFilename)
+	out, err := helpers.OpenFileForWriting(spec.Fs.WorkingDirWritable, filepath.Join(filepath.Join("assets", name)))
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	_, err = io.Copy(out, src)
 	out.Close()
@@ -169,7 +131,7 @@ func fetchResourceForSpec(spec *Spec, c *qt.C, name string, targetPathAddends ..
 
 	factory := newTargetPaths("/a")
 
-	r, err := spec.New(ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: spec.Fs.Source, TargetPaths: factory, LazyPublish: true, RelTargetFilename: name, SourceFilename: targetFilename})
+	r, err := spec.New(resources.ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: spec.BaseFs.Assets.Fs, TargetPaths: factory, LazyPublish: true, RelTargetFilename: name, SourceFilename: name})
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 	c.Assert(r, qt.Not(qt.IsNil))
 
diff --git a/resources/transform.go b/resources/transform.go
index fe438e366..9e5b57625 100644
--- a/resources/transform.go
+++ b/resources/transform.go
@@ -447,7 +447,7 @@ func (r *resourceAdapter) transform(publish, setContent bool) error {
 		}
 
 		newErr := func(err error) error {
-			msg := fmt.Sprintf("%s: failed to transform %q (%s)", strings.ToUpper(tr.Key().Name), tctx.InPath, tctx.InMediaType.Type())
+			msg := fmt.Sprintf("%s: failed to transform %q (%s)", strings.ToUpper(tr.Key().Name), tctx.InPath, tctx.InMediaType.Type)
 
 			if err == herrors.ErrFeatureNotAvailable {
 				var errMsg string
@@ -470,9 +470,9 @@ func (r *resourceAdapter) transform(publish, setContent bool) error {
 			return fmt.Errorf(msg+": %w", err)
 		}
 
+		bcfg := r.spec.BuildConfig()
 		var tryFileCache bool
-
-		if mayBeCachedOnDisk && r.spec.BuildConfig.UseResourceCache(nil) {
+		if mayBeCachedOnDisk && bcfg.UseResourceCache(nil) {
 			tryFileCache = true
 		} else {
 			err = tr.Transform(tctx)
@@ -481,7 +481,7 @@ func (r *resourceAdapter) transform(publish, setContent bool) error {
 			}
 
 			if mayBeCachedOnDisk {
-				tryFileCache = r.spec.BuildConfig.UseResourceCache(err)
+				tryFileCache = bcfg.UseResourceCache(err)
 			}
 			if err != nil && !tryFileCache {
 				return newErr(err)
@@ -654,7 +654,7 @@ func (u *transformationUpdate) isContentChanged() bool {
 
 func (u *transformationUpdate) toTransformedResourceMetadata() transformedResourceMetadata {
 	return transformedResourceMetadata{
-		MediaTypeV: u.mediaType.Type(),
+		MediaTypeV: u.mediaType.Type,
 		Target:     u.targetPath,
 		MetaData:   u.data,
 	}
diff --git a/resources/transform_test.go b/resources/transform_test.go
index c883e2593..d430bfb6c 100644
--- a/resources/transform_test.go
+++ b/resources/transform_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2019 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package resources
+package resources_test
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -25,11 +25,12 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/herrors"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/images"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/internal"
 
@@ -46,20 +47,21 @@ const gopher = `iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAEsAAAA8CAAAAAALAhhPAAAFfUlEQVRYw62XeWwU
 func gopherPNG() io.Reader { return base64.NewDecoder(base64.StdEncoding, strings.NewReader(gopher)) }
 
 func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
-	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	createTransformer := func(spec *Spec, filename, content string) Transformer {
+	createTransformer := func(c *qt.C, spec *resources.Spec, filename, content string) resources.Transformer {
 		filename = filepath.FromSlash(filename)
-		fs := spec.Fs.Source
-		afero.WriteFile(fs, filename, []byte(content), 0777)
-		r, _ := spec.New(ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: fs, SourceFilename: filename})
-		return r.(Transformer)
+		err := afero.WriteFile(spec.Fs.Source, filepath.Join("assets", filename), []byte(content), 0777)
+		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+		r, err := spec.New(resources.ResourceSourceDescriptor{Fs: spec.BaseFs.Assets.Fs, SourceFilename: filename})
+		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+		c.Assert(r, qt.Not(qt.IsNil), qt.Commentf(filename))
+		return r.(resources.Transformer)
 	}
 
-	createContentReplacer := func(name, old, new string) ResourceTransformation {
+	createContentReplacer := func(name, old, new string) resources.ResourceTransformation {
 		return &testTransformation{
 			name: name,
-			transform: func(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
+			transform: func(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 				in := helpers.ReaderToString(ctx.From)
 				in = strings.Replace(in, old, new, 1)
 				ctx.AddOutPathIdentifier("." + name)
@@ -70,7 +72,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	// Verify that we publish the same file once only.
-	assertNoDuplicateWrites := func(c *qt.C, spec *Spec) {
+	assertNoDuplicateWrites := func(c *qt.C, spec *resources.Spec) {
 		c.Helper()
 		hugofs.WalkFilesystems(spec.Fs.PublishDir, func(fs afero.Fs) bool {
 			if dfs, ok := fs.(hugofs.DuplicatesReporter); ok {
@@ -80,12 +82,14 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 
-	assertShouldExist := func(c *qt.C, spec *Spec, filename string, should bool) {
+	assertShouldExist := func(c *qt.C, spec *resources.Spec, filename string, should bool) {
 		c.Helper()
 		exists, _ := helpers.Exists(filepath.FromSlash(filename), spec.Fs.WorkingDirReadOnly)
 		c.Assert(exists, qt.Equals, should)
 	}
 
+	c := qt.New(t)
+
 	c.Run("All values", func(c *qt.C) {
 		c.Parallel()
 
@@ -93,14 +97,14 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 
 		transformation := &testTransformation{
 			name: "test",
-			transform: func(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
+			transform: func(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 				// Content
 				in := helpers.ReaderToString(ctx.From)
 				in = strings.Replace(in, "blue", "green", 1)
 				fmt.Fprint(ctx.To, in)
 
 				// Media type
-				ctx.OutMediaType = media.CSVType
+				ctx.OutMediaType = media.Builtin.CSVType
 
 				// Change target
 				ctx.ReplaceOutPathExtension(".csv")
@@ -112,7 +116,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 		}
 
-		r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
+		r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
 
 		tr, err := r.Transform(transformation)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -120,7 +124,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 		c.Assert(content, qt.Equals, "color is green")
-		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.CSVType)
+		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.Builtin.CSVType)
 		c.Assert(tr.RelPermalink(), qt.Equals, "/f1.csv")
 		assertShouldExist(c, spec, "public/f1.csv", true)
 
@@ -137,16 +141,16 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 
 		transformation := &testTransformation{
 			name: "test",
-			transform: func(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
+			transform: func(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 				// Change media type only
-				ctx.OutMediaType = media.CSVType
+				ctx.OutMediaType = media.Builtin.CSVType
 				ctx.ReplaceOutPathExtension(".csv")
 
 				return nil
 			},
 		}
 
-		r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
+		r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
 
 		tr, err := r.Transform(transformation)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -154,7 +158,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 		c.Assert(content, qt.Equals, "color is blue")
-		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.CSVType)
+		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.Builtin.CSVType)
 
 		// The transformed file should only be published if RelPermalink
 		// or Permalink is called.
@@ -182,8 +186,8 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 		t1 := createContentReplacer("t1", "blue", "green")
 		t2 := createContentReplacer("t1", "color", "car")
 
-		for i, transformation := range []ResourceTransformation{t1, t2} {
-			r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
+		for i, transformation := range []resources.ResourceTransformation{t1, t2} {
+			r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
 			tr, _ := r.Transform(transformation)
 			content, err := tr.(resource.ContentProvider).Content(context.Background())
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
@@ -203,20 +207,20 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 		for i := 0; i < 2; i++ {
 			spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c, fs: fs})
 
-			r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
+			r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
 
-			var transformation ResourceTransformation
+			var transformation resources.ResourceTransformation
 
 			if i == 0 {
 				// There is currently a hardcoded list of transformations that we
 				// persist to disk (tocss, postcss).
 				transformation = &testTransformation{
 					name: "tocss",
-					transform: func(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
+					transform: func(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 						in := helpers.ReaderToString(ctx.From)
 						in = strings.Replace(in, "blue", "green", 1)
 						ctx.AddOutPathIdentifier("." + "cached")
-						ctx.OutMediaType = media.CSVType
+						ctx.OutMediaType = media.Builtin.CSVType
 						ctx.Data = map[string]any{
 							"Hugo": "Rocks!",
 						}
@@ -228,7 +232,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 				// Force read from file cache.
 				transformation = &testTransformation{
 					name: "tocss",
-					transform: func(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
+					transform: func(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 						return herrors.ErrFeatureNotAvailable
 					},
 				}
@@ -241,7 +245,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 			content, err := tr.(resource.ContentProvider).Content(context.Background())
 			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 			c.Assert(content, qt.Equals, "color is green", msg)
-			c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.CSVType)
+			c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.Builtin.CSVType)
 			c.Assert(tr.Data(), qt.DeepEquals, map[string]any{
 				"Hugo": "Rocks!",
 			})
@@ -259,7 +263,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 
 		t1 := createContentReplacer("t1", "blue", "green")
 
-		r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
+		r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
 
 		tr, _ := r.Transform(t1)
 
@@ -270,7 +274,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 
 		c.Assert(relPermalink, qt.Equals, "/f1.t1.txt")
 		c.Assert(content, qt.Equals, "color is green")
-		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.TextType)
+		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.Builtin.TextType)
 
 		assertNoDuplicateWrites(c, spec)
 		assertShouldExist(c, spec, "public/f1.t1.txt", true)
@@ -284,14 +288,14 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 		t1 := createContentReplacer("t1", "blue", "green")
 		t2 := createContentReplacer("t1", "color", "car")
 
-		r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
+		r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
 
 		tr, _ := r.Transform(t1, t2)
 		content, err := tr.(resource.ContentProvider).Content(context.Background())
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 		c.Assert(content, qt.Equals, "car is green")
-		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.TextType)
+		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.Builtin.TextType)
 
 		assertNoDuplicateWrites(c, spec)
 	})
@@ -304,7 +308,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 		t1 := createContentReplacer("t1", "blue", "green")
 		t2 := createContentReplacer("t2", "color", "car")
 
-		r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
+		r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", "color is blue")
 
 		tr1, _ := r.Transform(t1)
 		tr2, _ := tr1.Transform(t2)
@@ -327,7 +331,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 
 		const count = 26 // A-Z
 
-		transformations := make([]ResourceTransformation, count)
+		transformations := make([]resources.ResourceTransformation, count)
 		for i := 0; i < count; i++ {
 			transformations[i] = createContentReplacer(fmt.Sprintf("t%d", i), fmt.Sprint(i), string(rune(i+65)))
 		}
@@ -337,7 +341,7 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 			countstr.WriteString(fmt.Sprint(i))
 		}
 
-		r := createTransformer(spec, "f1.txt", countstr.String())
+		r := createTransformer(c, spec, "f1.txt", countstr.String())
 
 		tr, _ := r.Transform(transformations...)
 		content, err := tr.(resource.ContentProvider).Content(context.Background())
@@ -355,17 +359,17 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 
 		transformation := &testTransformation{
 			name: "test",
-			transform: func(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
+			transform: func(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 				ctx.AddOutPathIdentifier(".changed")
 				return nil
 			},
 		}
 
-		r := createTransformer(spec, "gopher.png", helpers.ReaderToString(gopherPNG()))
+		r := createTransformer(c, spec, "gopher.png", helpers.ReaderToString(gopherPNG()))
 
 		tr, err := r.Transform(transformation)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.PNGType)
+		c.Assert(tr.MediaType(), eq, media.Builtin.PNGType)
 
 		img, ok := tr.(images.ImageResource)
 		c.Assert(ok, qt.Equals, true)
@@ -400,11 +404,11 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Run("Concurrent", func(c *qt.C) {
 		spec := newTestResourceSpec(specDescriptor{c: c})
 
-		transformers := make([]Transformer, 10)
-		transformations := make([]ResourceTransformation, 10)
+		transformers := make([]resources.Transformer, 10)
+		transformations := make([]resources.ResourceTransformation, 10)
 
 		for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
-			transformers[i] = createTransformer(spec, fmt.Sprintf("f%d.txt", i), fmt.Sprintf("color is %d", i))
+			transformers[i] = createTransformer(c, spec, fmt.Sprintf("f%d.txt", i), fmt.Sprintf("color is %d", i))
 			transformations[i] = createContentReplacer("test", strconv.Itoa(i), "blue")
 		}
 
@@ -433,13 +437,13 @@ func TestTransform(t *testing.T) {
 
 type testTransformation struct {
 	name      string
-	transform func(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error
+	transform func(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error
 }
 
 func (t *testTransformation) Key() internal.ResourceTransformationKey {
 	return internal.NewResourceTransformationKey(t.name)
 }
 
-func (t *testTransformation) Transform(ctx *ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
+func (t *testTransformation) Transform(ctx *resources.ResourceTransformationCtx) error {
 	return t.transform(ctx)
 }
diff --git a/source/content_directory_test.go b/source/content_directory_test.go
index 4d800cb5a..7d1630529 100644
--- a/source/content_directory_test.go
+++ b/source/content_directory_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,13 +11,18 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package source
+package source_test
 
 import (
+	"fmt"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"testing"
 
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
+	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
@@ -45,22 +50,30 @@ func TestIgnoreDotFilesAndDirectories(t *testing.T) {
 		{"foobar/foo.md", true, []string{"\\.md$", "\\.boo$"}},
 		{"foobar/foo.html", false, []string{"\\.md$", "\\.boo$"}},
 		{"foobar/foo.md", true, []string{"foo.md$"}},
-		{"foobar/foo.md", true, []string{"*", "\\.md$", "\\.boo$"}},
+		{"foobar/foo.md", true, []string{".*", "\\.md$", "\\.boo$"}},
 		{"foobar/.#content.md", true, []string{"/\\.#"}},
 		{".#foobar.md", true, []string{"^\\.#"}},
 	}
 
 	for i, test := range tests {
-		v := newTestConfig()
-		v.Set("ignoreFiles", test.ignoreFilesRegexpes)
-		fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
-		ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, v, nil)
-		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
+		test := test
+		c.Run(fmt.Sprintf("[%d] %s", i, test.path), func(c *qt.C) {
+			c.Parallel()
+			v := config.New()
+			v.Set("ignoreFiles", test.ignoreFilesRegexpes)
+			v.Set("publishDir", "public")
+			afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+			conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+			fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(afs, v)
+			ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, conf, nil)
+			c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
-		s := NewSourceSpec(ps, nil, fs.Source)
+			s := source.NewSourceSpec(ps, nil, fs.Source)
+
+			if ignored := s.IgnoreFile(filepath.FromSlash(test.path)); test.ignore != ignored {
+				t.Errorf("[%d] File not ignored", i)
+			}
+		})
 
-		if ignored := s.IgnoreFile(filepath.FromSlash(test.path)); test.ignore != ignored {
-			t.Errorf("[%d] File not ignored", i)
-		}
 	}
 }
diff --git a/source/fileInfo.go b/source/fileInfo.go
index 618498add..c58a0c3b9 100644
--- a/source/fileInfo.go
+++ b/source/fileInfo.go
@@ -96,6 +96,7 @@ type FileWithoutOverlap interface {
 	// Hugo content files being one of them, considered to be unique.
 	UniqueID() string
 
+	// For internal use only.
 	FileInfo() hugofs.FileMetaInfo
 }
 
@@ -182,6 +183,7 @@ func (fi *FileInfo) UniqueID() string {
 }
 
 // FileInfo returns a file's underlying os.FileInfo.
+// For internal use only.
 func (fi *FileInfo) FileInfo() hugofs.FileMetaInfo { return fi.fi }
 
 func (fi *FileInfo) String() string { return fi.BaseFileName() }
diff --git a/source/fileInfo_test.go b/source/fileInfo_test.go
index b8bb33cd3..e2a3edd30 100644
--- a/source/fileInfo_test.go
+++ b/source/fileInfo_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package source
+package source_test
 
 import (
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
 )
 
 func TestFileInfo(t *testing.T) {
@@ -29,9 +30,9 @@ func TestFileInfo(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, this := range []struct {
 		base     string
 		filename string
-		assert   func(f *FileInfo)
+		assert   func(f *source.FileInfo)
 	}{
-		{filepath.FromSlash("/a/"), filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/page.md"), func(f *FileInfo) {
+		{filepath.FromSlash("/a/"), filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/page.md"), func(f *source.FileInfo) {
 			c.Assert(f.Filename(), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/page.md"))
 			c.Assert(f.Dir(), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("b/"))
 			c.Assert(f.Path(), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("b/page.md"))
@@ -39,10 +40,10 @@ func TestFileInfo(t *testing.T) {
 			c.Assert(f.TranslationBaseName(), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("page"))
 			c.Assert(f.BaseFileName(), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("page"))
 		}},
-		{filepath.FromSlash("/a/"), filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/c/d/page.md"), func(f *FileInfo) {
+		{filepath.FromSlash("/a/"), filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/c/d/page.md"), func(f *source.FileInfo) {
 			c.Assert(f.Section(), qt.Equals, "b")
 		}},
-		{filepath.FromSlash("/a/"), filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/page.en.MD"), func(f *FileInfo) {
+		{filepath.FromSlash("/a/"), filepath.FromSlash("/a/b/page.en.MD"), func(f *source.FileInfo) {
 			c.Assert(f.Section(), qt.Equals, "b")
 			c.Assert(f.Path(), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("b/page.en.MD"))
 			c.Assert(f.TranslationBaseName(), qt.Equals, filepath.FromSlash("page"))
diff --git a/source/filesystem_test.go b/source/filesystem_test.go
index 31e3bdd70..1067d5839 100644
--- a/source/filesystem_test.go
+++ b/source/filesystem_test.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2015 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package source
+package source_test
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
@@ -19,17 +19,14 @@ import (
 	"runtime"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/source"
 )
 
 func TestEmptySourceFilesystem(t *testing.T) {
@@ -60,13 +57,11 @@ func TestUnicodeNorm(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	ss := newTestSourceSpec()
-	fi := hugofs.NewFileMetaInfo(nil, hugofs.NewFileMeta())
 
 	for i, path := range paths {
 		base := fmt.Sprintf("base%d", i)
 		c.Assert(afero.WriteFile(ss.Fs.Source, filepath.Join(base, path.NFD), []byte("some data"), 0777), qt.IsNil)
 		src := ss.NewFilesystem(base)
-		_ = src.add(path.NFD, fi)
 		files, err := src.Files()
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 		f := files[0]
@@ -76,27 +71,14 @@ func TestUnicodeNorm(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func newTestConfig() config.Provider {
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	_, err := langs.LoadLanguageSettings(v, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(v)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-	v.Set("allModules", modules.Modules{mod})
-
-	return v
-}
-
-func newTestSourceSpec() *SourceSpec {
-	v := newTestConfig()
-	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewMemMapFs()), v)
-	ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, v, nil)
+func newTestSourceSpec() *source.SourceSpec {
+	v := config.New()
+	afs := hugofs.NewBaseFileDecorator(afero.NewMemMapFs())
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, conf.BaseConfig())
+	ps, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, conf, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
-	return NewSourceSpec(ps, nil, fs.Source)
+	return source.NewSourceSpec(ps, nil, fs.Source)
 }
diff --git a/source/sourceSpec.go b/source/sourceSpec.go
index 954167f28..dc44994a8 100644
--- a/source/sourceSpec.go
+++ b/source/sourceSpec.go
@@ -17,16 +17,13 @@ package source
 import (
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"regexp"
 	"runtime"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs/glob"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/spf13/cast"
 )
 
 // SourceSpec abstracts language-specific file creation.
@@ -37,56 +34,23 @@ type SourceSpec struct {
 	SourceFs afero.Fs
 
 	shouldInclude func(filename string) bool
-
-	Languages              map[string]any
-	DefaultContentLanguage string
-	DisabledLanguages      map[string]bool
 }
 
 // NewSourceSpec initializes SourceSpec using languages the given filesystem and PathSpec.
 func NewSourceSpec(ps *helpers.PathSpec, inclusionFilter *glob.FilenameFilter, fs afero.Fs) *SourceSpec {
-	cfg := ps.Cfg
-	defaultLang := cfg.GetString("defaultContentLanguage")
-	languages := cfg.GetStringMap("languages")
-
-	disabledLangsSet := make(map[string]bool)
-
-	for _, disabledLang := range cfg.GetStringSlice("disableLanguages") {
-		disabledLangsSet[disabledLang] = true
-	}
 
-	if len(languages) == 0 {
-		l := langs.NewDefaultLanguage(cfg)
-		languages[l.Lang] = l
-		defaultLang = l.Lang
-	}
-
-	ignoreFiles := cast.ToStringSlice(cfg.Get("ignoreFiles"))
-	var regexps []*regexp.Regexp
-	if len(ignoreFiles) > 0 {
-		for _, ignorePattern := range ignoreFiles {
-			re, err := regexp.Compile(ignorePattern)
-			if err != nil {
-				helpers.DistinctErrorLog.Printf("Invalid regexp %q in ignoreFiles: %s", ignorePattern, err)
-			} else {
-				regexps = append(regexps, re)
-			}
-
-		}
-	}
 	shouldInclude := func(filename string) bool {
 		if !inclusionFilter.Match(filename, false) {
 			return false
 		}
-		for _, r := range regexps {
-			if r.MatchString(filename) {
-				return false
-			}
+		if ps.Cfg.IgnoreFile(filename) {
+			return false
 		}
+
 		return true
 	}
 
-	return &SourceSpec{shouldInclude: shouldInclude, PathSpec: ps, SourceFs: fs, Languages: languages, DefaultContentLanguage: defaultLang, DisabledLanguages: disabledLangsSet}
+	return &SourceSpec{shouldInclude: shouldInclude, PathSpec: ps, SourceFs: fs}
 }
 
 // IgnoreFile returns whether a given file should be ignored.
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/commands_errors.txt b/testscripts/commands/commands_errors.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..fcce6197f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/commands_errors.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Testing various error situations.
+
+! hugo mods
+stderr 'Did you mean this\?'
+
+! hugo mod clea
+stderr 'Did you mean this\?'
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/completion.txt b/testscripts/commands/completion.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..04d79e3a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/completion.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+# Test the completion commands.
+
+hugo completion -h
+stdout 'Generate the autocompletion script for hugo for the specified shell.'
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/config.txt b/testscripts/commands/config.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..7f8fc4974
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/config.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# Test the config command.
+
+hugo config -h
+stdout 'Print the site configuration'
+
+
+hugo config
+stdout '\"baseurl\": \"https://example.com/\",'
+
+hugo config mounts -h
+stdout 'Print the configured file mounts'
+
+hugo config mounts
+stdout '\"source\": \"content\",'
+
+# Test files
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL="https://example.com/"
+title="My New Hugo Site"
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/convert.txt b/testscripts/commands/convert.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1cf756215
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/convert.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+# Test the convert commands.
+
+hugo convert -h
+stdout 'Convert your content'
+hugo convert toJSON -h
+stdout 'to use JSON for the front matter'
+hugo convert toTOML -h
+stdout 'to use TOML for the front matter'
+hugo convert toYAML -h
+stdout 'to use YAML for the front matter'
+
+hugo convert toJSON -o myjsoncontent
+stdout 'processing 3 content files'
+grep '^{' myjsoncontent/content/mytoml.md
+grep '^{' myjsoncontent/content/myjson.md
+grep '^{' myjsoncontent/content/myyaml.md
+hugo convert toYAML -o myyamlcontent
+stdout 'processing 3 content files'
+hugo convert toTOML -o mytomlcontent
+stdout 'processing 3 content files'
+
+
+
+
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "http://example.org/"
+-- content/mytoml.md --
++++
+title = "TOML"
++++
+TOML content
+-- content/myjson.md --
+{
+  "title": "JSON"
+}
+JSON content
+-- content/myyaml.md --
+---
+title: YAML
+---
+YAML content
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/deploy.txt b/testscripts/commands/deploy.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b21bf0b38
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/deploy.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+# Test the deploy command.
+
+hugo deploy -h
+stdout 'Deploy your site to a Cloud provider\.'
+mkdir mybucket
+hugo deploy --target mydeployment
+grep 'hello' mybucket/index.html
+replace  public/index.html 'hello' 'changed'
+hugo deploy --target mydeployment --invalidateCDN --dryRun
+stdout 'Would upload: index.html'
+stdout 'Would invalidate CloudFront CDN with ID foobar'
+-- hugo.toml --
+disableKinds = ["RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "404", "taxonomy", "term"]
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+[deployment]
+[[deployment.targets]]
+name = "myfirst"
+url="gs://asdfasdf"
+[[deployment.targets]]
+name = "mydeployment"
+url="file://./mybucket"
+cloudFrontDistributionID = "foobar"
+-- public/index.html --
+<html><body>hello</body></html>
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/env.txt b/testscripts/commands/env.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..742e05ffc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/env.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# Test the hugo env command.
+
+hugo env
+stdout 'GOARCH'
+! stderr .
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/gen.txt b/testscripts/commands/gen.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..06f060b3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/gen.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# Test the gen commands.
+# Note that adding new commands will require updating the NUM_COMMANDS value.
+env NUM_COMMANDS=41
+
+hugo gen -h
+stdout 'A collection of several useful generators\.'
+
+hugo gen doc --dir clidocs
+checkfilecount $NUM_COMMANDS clidocs
+
+hugo gen man -h
+stdout 'up-to-date man pages'
+hugo gen man --dir manpages
+checkfilecount $NUM_COMMANDS manpages
+
+hugo gen chromastyles -h
+stdout 'Generate CSS stylesheet for the Chroma code highlighter'
+hugo gen chromastyles --style monokai
+stdout 'color: #f8f8f2'
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/hugo.txt b/testscripts/commands/hugo.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..7dfabe592
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/hugo.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# Test the hugo command.
+
+hugo
+stdout 'Pages.*|1'
+stdout 'Total in'
+checkfile public/index.html
+checkfile public/p1/index.html
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "http://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "404", "taxonomy", "term"]
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Home.
+-- layouts/_default/single.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}
+-- content/p1.md --
+---
+title: "P1"
+---
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/hugo__errors.txt b/testscripts/commands/hugo__errors.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..2400ce69b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/hugo__errors.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+# Testing error output.
+
+# The hugo mod get command handles flags a little special, but the -h flag should print the help.
+hugo mod get -h
+stdout 'Resolves dependencies in your current Hugo Project'
+
+# Invalid flag. Should print an error message to stderr and the help to stdout.
+! hugo --asdf
+stderr 'unknown flag: --asdf'
+stdout 'hugo is the main command'
+
+# This should fail the build, print an error message to stderr, but no help output.
+! hugo
+! stdout 'hugo is the main command'
+stderr 'failed to load config'
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+invalid: toml
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/hugo__flags.txt b/testscripts/commands/hugo__flags.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..46243f8a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/hugo__flags.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+# Test the hugo command.
+
+hugo --baseURL http://example.com/ --destination ${WORK}/newpublic --clock 2021-11-06T22:30:00.00+09:00 -e staging --config ${WORK}/myconfig --configDir ${WORK}/myconfigdir -s mysource
+stdout 'Pages.*|1'
+stdout 'Total in'
+grep 'Home: http://example.com/, Time: 2021-11-06' newpublic/index.html
+grep 'Environment: staging, foo: bar, bar: baz' newpublic/index.html
+
+hugo --quiet
+! stdout .
+
+-- myconfig.toml --
+baseURL = "http://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "404", "taxonomy", "term"]
+[params]
+foo = "bar"
+-- myconfigdir/_default/params.toml --
+bar = "baz"
+-- mysource/layouts/index.html --
+Home: {{ .Permalink }}, Time: {{ now }}
+Environment: {{ hugo.Environment }}, foo: {{ .Site.Params.foo }}, bar: {{ .Site.Params.bar }}
+-- mysource/layouts/_default/single.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}
+-- mysource/content/p1.md --
+---
+title: "P1"
+---
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/hugo__watch.txt b/testscripts/commands/hugo__watch.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b434bd112
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/hugo__watch.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+# Test the hugo command.
+
+# See https://github.com/rogpeppe/go-internal/issues/228
+[windows] skip
+
+hugo -w &
+
+sleep 3
+grep 'P1start' public/p1/index.html
+
+replace content/p1.md 'P1start' 'P1end'
+sleep 2
+grep 'P1end' public/p1/index.html
+
+stop
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "http://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["RSS", "sitemap", "robotsTXT", "404", "taxonomy", "term"]
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Home.
+-- layouts/_default/single.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}| {{ .Content }}
+-- content/p1.md --
+---
+title: "P1"
+---
+P1start
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/import_jekyll.txt b/testscripts/commands/import_jekyll.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..8d229ba2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/import_jekyll.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# Test the import jekyll command.
+
+hugo import -h 
+stdout 'Import your site from other web site generators like Jekyll\.'
+
+hugo import jekyll -h
+stdout 'hugo import from Jekyll\.'
+
+hugo import jekyll myjekyllsite myhugosite
+checkfilecount 1 myhugosite/content/post
+grep 'example\.org' myhugosite/hugo.yaml
+
+# A simple Jekyll site.
+-- myjekyllsite/_posts/2012-01-18-hello-world.markdown --
+---
+layout: post
+title: "Hello World"
+---
+Hello world!
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/list.txt b/testscripts/commands/list.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..68d1097d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/list.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+# Test the hugo list commands.
+
+hugo list drafts
+! stderr .
+stdout 'draft.md,2019-01-01T00:00:00Z'
+
+hugo list future
+stdout 'future.md,2030-01-01T00:00:00Z'
+
+hugo list expired
+stdout 'expired.md,2018-01-01T00:00:00Z'
+
+hugo list all
+stdout 'future.md,2030-01-01T00:00:00Z'
+stdout 'draft.md,2019-01-01T00:00:00Z'
+stdout 'expired.md,2018-01-01T00:00:00Z'
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term"]
+-- content/draft.md --
+---
+draft: true
+date: 2019-01-01
+---
+-- content/expired.md --
+---
+date: 2018-01-01
+expiryDate: 2019-01-01
+---
+-- content/future.md --
+---
+date: 2030-01-01
+---
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/mod.txt b/testscripts/commands/mod.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a2ea0ad24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/mod.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+# Test the hugo mod commands.
+
+dostounix golden/vendor.txt
+dostounix golden/go.mod.testsubmod
+
+hugo mod graph
+stdout 'empty-hugo'
+hugo mod verify
+! stderr .
+hugo mod get -u
+! stderr .
+hugo mod get -u ./...
+! stderr .
+hugo mod vendor
+! stderr .
+cmp _vendor/modules.txt golden/vendor.txt
+hugo mod clean
+! stderr .
+stdout 'hugo: removed 1 dirs in module cache for \"github.com/bep/empty-hugo-module\"'
+hugo mod clean --all
+stdout 'Deleted 2\d{2} files from module cache\.'
+cd submod
+hugo mod init testsubmod
+cmpenv go.mod $WORK/golden/go.mod.testsubmod
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Modules Test"
+[module]
+[[module.imports]]
+path="github.com/bep/empty-hugo-module"
+[[module.imports.mounts]]
+source="README.md"
+target="content/_index.md"
+-- go.mod --
+go 1.19
+
+module github.com/gohugoio/testmod
+-- submod/hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Sub Module"
+-- golden/vendor.txt --
+# github.com/bep/empty-hugo-module v1.0.0
+-- golden/go.mod.testsubmod --
+module testsubmod
+
+go ${GOVERSION}
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/mod_npm.txt b/testscripts/commands/mod_npm.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..fb0aa38c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/mod_npm.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+# Test mod npm.
+
+hugo mod npm pack
+cmp package.hugo.json golden/package.hugo.json
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+-- package.json --
+{
+  "name": "test",
+  "version": "1.0.0",
+  "dependencies": {
+    "mod": "foo-bar"
+  }
+}
+-- golden/package.hugo.json --
+{
+  "name": "test",
+  "version": "1.0.0",
+  "dependencies": {
+    "mod": "foo-bar"
+  }
+}
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/mod_tidy.txt b/testscripts/commands/mod_tidy.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..6e8d37f64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/mod_tidy.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+# Test hugo mod tidy.
+
+dostounix golden/go.mod.cleaned
+
+hugo mod tidy
+
+cmp go.mod golden/go.mod.cleaned
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Modules Test"
+-- go.mod --
+go 1.19
+
+require github.com/bep/empty-hugo-module v1.0.0
+
+module github.com/gohugoio/testmod
+-- golden/go.mod.cleaned --
+go 1.19
+
+
+module github.com/gohugoio/testmod
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/new.txt b/testscripts/commands/new.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..11fe753b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/new.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+# Test the new command.
+
+hugo new site -h
+stdout 'Create a new site in the provided directory'
+hugo new site mysite
+stdout 'Congratulations! Your new Hugo site is created in'
+cd mysite
+checkfile hugo.toml
+
+hugo new theme -h
+stdout 'Create a new site in the provided directory'
+hugo new theme mytheme
+stdout 'Creating theme'
+cd themes
+cd mytheme
+checkfile theme.toml
+checkfile hugo.toml
+exists layouts/_default/list.html
+exists layouts/_default/single.html
+
+cd $WORK/mysite
+
+hugo new -h
+stdout 'Create a new content file.'
+hugo new posts/my-first-post.md
+checkfile content/posts/my-first-post.md
+
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/server.txt b/testscripts/commands/server.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1316356eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/server.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+# Test the hugo server command.
+
+# We run these tests in parallel so let Hugo decide which port to use.
+hugo server &
+
+waitServer
+
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'Title: Hugo Server Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'ServerPort: \d{4,5}' 'myenv: thedevelopment' 'livereload\.js' 'Env: development' 'IsServer: true'
+httpget ${HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0}doesnotexist 'custom 404'
+
+# By defauilt, the server renders to memory.
+! exists public/index.html
+
+stopServer
+! stderr .
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "sitemap"]
+-- config/production/params.toml --
+myenv = "theproduction"
+-- config/development/params.toml --
+myenv = "thedevelopment"
+-- layouts/index.html --
+<body>
+Title: {{ .Title }}|BaseURL: {{ site.BaseURL }}|ServerPort: {{ site.ServerPort }}|myenv: {{ .Site.Params.myenv }}|Env: {{ hugo.Environment }}|IsServer: {{ site.IsServer }}|
+</body>
+-- layouts/404.html --
+custom 404
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/server__edit_config.txt b/testscripts/commands/server__edit_config.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e3972bf07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/server__edit_config.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+# Test the hugo server command when editing the config file.
+
+# We run these tests in parallel so let Hugo decide which port to use.
+hugo server &
+
+waitServer
+
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'Title: Hugo Server Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+
+mv edits/title.toml hugo.toml
+
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'Title: Hugo New Server Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+
+mv edits/addlanguage.toml hugo.toml
+
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'Title: Hugo New Server Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+httpget ${HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0}nn/ 'Hugo Nynorsk Server Test' ${HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0}nn/
+
+stopServer
+! stderr .
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+-- edits/title.toml --
+title = "Hugo New Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+-- edits/addlanguage.toml --
+title = "Hugo New Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+languageName = "English"
+weight = 1
+[languages.nn]
+languageName = "Nynorsk"
+title = "Hugo Nynorsk Server Test"
+weight = 2
+
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}|BaseURL: {{ .Permalink }}|
+
+
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/server__edit_content.txt b/testscripts/commands/server__edit_content.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5a2d9d502
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/server__edit_content.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+# Test the hugo server command when editing content.
+
+# We run these tests in parallel so let Hugo decide which port to use.
+# Render to disk so we can check the /public dir.
+hugo server --renderToDisk &
+
+waitServer
+
+httpget ${HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0}p1/ 'Title: P1' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+
+ls public/p2
+cp stdout lsp2_1.txt
+ls public/staticfiles
+stdout 'static\.txt'
+cp stdout lsstaticfiles_1.txt
+
+replace $WORK/content/p1/index.md 'P1' 'P1 New'
+
+httpget ${HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0}p1/ 'Title: P1 New' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+
+ls public/p2
+cp stdout lsp2_2.txt
+cmp lsp2_1.txt lsp2_2.txt
+ls public/staticfiles
+cp stdout lsstaticfiles_2.txt
+cmp lsstaticfiles_1.txt lsstaticfiles_2.txt
+
+stopServer
+! stderr .
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "sitemap"]
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}|BaseURL: {{ site.BaseURL }}|
+-- layouts/_default/single.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}|BaseURL: {{ site.BaseURL }}|
+-- content/_index.md --
+---
+title: Hugo Home
+---
+-- content/p1/index.md --
+---
+title: P1
+---
+-- content/p2/index.md --
+---
+title: P2
+---
+-- static/staticfiles/static.txt --
+static
+
+
+
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/server__multihost.txt b/testscripts/commands/server__multihost.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..492cac855
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/server__multihost.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+# Test the hugo server command.
+
+# We run these tests in parallel so let Hugo decide which port to use.
+hugo server &
+
+waitServer
+
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'Title: Hugo Server Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_1 'Title: Hugo Serveur Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_1
+
+stopServer
+! stderr .
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "sitemap"]
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+baseURL = "https://en.example.org/"
+languageName = "English"
+title = "Hugo Server Test"
+weight = 1
+[languages.fr]
+baseURL = "https://fr.example.org/"
+title = "Hugo Serveur Test"
+languageName = "Français"
+weight = 2
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}|BaseURL: {{ site.BaseURL }}|
+
+
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/server_render_static_to_disk.txt b/testscripts/commands/server_render_static_to_disk.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..f2f10e78f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/server_render_static_to_disk.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+# Test the hugo server command.
+
+# We run these tests in parallel so let Hugo decide which port to use.
+hugo server --renderStaticToDisk &
+
+waitServer
+
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'Title: Hugo Server Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+
+! exists public/index.html
+exists public/mystatic.txt
+
+stopServer
+! stderr .
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "sitemap"]
+-- static/mystatic.txt --
+This is a static file.
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}|BaseURL: {{ site.BaseURL }}|
+
+
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/server_render_to_memory.txt b/testscripts/commands/server_render_to_memory.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..53ab74aa5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/server_render_to_memory.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+# Test the hugo server command.
+
+# We run these tests in parallel so let Hugo decide which port to use.
+hugo server &
+
+waitServer
+
+httpget $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0 'Title: Hugo Server Test' $HUGOTEST_BASEURL_0
+
+! exists public/index.html
+! exists public/mystatic.txt
+
+stopServer
+! stderr .
+
+-- hugo.toml --
+title = "Hugo Server Test"
+baseURL = "https://example.org/"
+disableKinds = ["taxonomy", "term", "sitemap"]
+-- static/mystatic.txt --
+This is a static file.
+-- layouts/index.html --
+Title: {{ .Title }}|BaseURL: {{ site.BaseURL }}|
+
+
diff --git a/testscripts/commands/version.txt b/testscripts/commands/version.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..25fbbc85f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/commands/version.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Test the hugo version command.
+
+hugo -h
+stdout 'hugo is the main command, used to build your Hugo site'
+
+hugo version
+stdout 'hugo v.* BuildDate=unknown'
diff --git a/testscripts/unfinished/noop.txt b/testscripts/unfinished/noop.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e69de29bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/testscripts/unfinished/noop.txt
diff --git a/tpl/cast/docshelper.go b/tpl/cast/docshelper.go
index 1c7b9c888..2ed28e3c5 100644
--- a/tpl/cast/docshelper.go
+++ b/tpl/cast/docshelper.go
@@ -14,11 +14,10 @@
 package cast
 
 import (
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/docshelper"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl/internal"
 )
@@ -26,14 +25,11 @@ import (
 // This file provides documentation support and is randomly put into this package.
 func init() {
 	docsProvider := func() docshelper.DocProvider {
-		cfg := config.New()
-		d := &deps.Deps{
-			Cfg:                 cfg,
-			Log:                 loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
-			BuildStartListeners: &deps.Listeners{},
-			Language:            langs.NewDefaultLanguage(cfg),
-			Site:                page.NewDummyHugoSite(newTestConfig()),
+		d := &deps.Deps{Conf: testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, nil)}
+		if err := d.Init(); err != nil {
+			panic(err)
 		}
+		d.Site = page.NewDummyHugoSite(newTestConfig())
 
 		var namespaces internal.TemplateFuncsNamespaces
 
diff --git a/tpl/collections/append_test.go b/tpl/collections/append_test.go
index 232781522..78cdcdd84 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/append_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/append_test.go
@@ -18,17 +18,13 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 )
 
 // Also see tests in common/collection.
 func TestAppend(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		start    any
diff --git a/tpl/collections/apply_test.go b/tpl/collections/apply_test.go
index 2c7783fd9..aa39923b7 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/apply_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/apply_test.go
@@ -21,10 +21,9 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output/layouts"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
 )
 
@@ -46,7 +45,7 @@ func (templateFinder) LookupVariants(name string) []tpl.Template {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (templateFinder) LookupLayout(d output.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (tpl.Template, bool, error) {
+func (templateFinder) LookupLayout(d layouts.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (tpl.Template, bool, error) {
 	return nil, false, nil
 }
 
@@ -69,8 +68,10 @@ func (templateFinder) GetFunc(name string) (reflect.Value, bool) {
 func TestApply(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	d := &deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())}
-	d.SetTmpl(new(templateFinder))
+	d := testconfig.GetTestDeps(nil, nil)
+	d.SetTempl(&tpl.TemplateHandlers{
+		Tmpl: new(templateFinder),
+	})
 	ns := New(d)
 
 	strings := []any{"a\n", "b\n"}
diff --git a/tpl/collections/collections.go b/tpl/collections/collections.go
index 994d5f1b4..35a87394a 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/collections.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/collections.go
@@ -43,11 +43,11 @@ func init() {
 
 // New returns a new instance of the collections-namespaced template functions.
 func New(deps *deps.Deps) *Namespace {
-	if deps.Language == nil {
+	language := deps.Conf.Language()
+	if language == nil {
 		panic("language must be set")
 	}
-
-	loc := langs.GetLocation(deps.Language)
+	loc := langs.GetLocation(language)
 
 	return &Namespace{
 		loc:      loc,
diff --git a/tpl/collections/collections_test.go b/tpl/collections/collections_test.go
index fd78da6d4..86192c480 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/collections_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/collections_test.go
@@ -23,15 +23,9 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
 type tstNoStringer struct{}
@@ -40,7 +34,7 @@ func TestAfter(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		index  any
@@ -97,7 +91,7 @@ func (g *tstGrouper2) Group(key any, items any) (any, error) {
 func TestGroup(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		key    any
@@ -133,9 +127,7 @@ func TestDelimit(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{
-		Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New()),
-	})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		seq       any
@@ -187,7 +179,7 @@ func TestDelimit(t *testing.T) {
 func TestDictionary(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		values []any
@@ -226,7 +218,7 @@ func TestDictionary(t *testing.T) {
 func TestReverse(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	s := []string{"a", "b", "c"}
 	reversed, err := ns.Reverse(s)
@@ -245,7 +237,7 @@ func TestEchoParam(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		a      any
@@ -277,7 +269,7 @@ func TestFirst(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		limit  any
@@ -314,8 +306,7 @@ func TestFirst(t *testing.T) {
 func TestIn(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		l1     any
@@ -391,7 +382,7 @@ func TestIntersect(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		l1, l2 any
@@ -481,7 +472,7 @@ func TestIntersect(t *testing.T) {
 func TestIsSet(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := newTestNs()
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		a      any
@@ -518,7 +509,7 @@ func TestLast(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		limit  any
@@ -557,7 +548,7 @@ func TestLast(t *testing.T) {
 func TestQuerify(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		params []any
@@ -591,7 +582,7 @@ func TestQuerify(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func BenchmarkQuerify(b *testing.B) {
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 	params := []any{"a", "b", "c", "d", "f", " &"}
 
 	b.ResetTimer()
@@ -604,7 +595,7 @@ func BenchmarkQuerify(b *testing.B) {
 }
 
 func BenchmarkQuerifySlice(b *testing.B) {
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 	params := []string{"a", "b", "c", "d", "f", " &"}
 
 	b.ResetTimer()
@@ -619,7 +610,7 @@ func BenchmarkQuerifySlice(b *testing.B) {
 func TestSeq(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		args   []any
@@ -663,7 +654,7 @@ func TestSeq(t *testing.T) {
 func TestShuffle(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		seq     any
@@ -703,7 +694,7 @@ func TestShuffle(t *testing.T) {
 func TestShuffleRandomising(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	// Note that this test can fail with false negative result if the shuffle
 	// of the sequence happens to be the same as the original sequence. However
@@ -734,7 +725,7 @@ func TestShuffleRandomising(t *testing.T) {
 func TestSlice(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		args     []any
@@ -758,7 +749,7 @@ func TestUnion(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		l1     any
@@ -847,7 +838,7 @@ func TestUnion(t *testing.T) {
 func TestUniq(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 	for i, test := range []struct {
 		l      any
 		expect any
@@ -971,22 +962,6 @@ func ToTstXIs(slice any) []TstXI {
 	return tis
 }
 
-func newDeps(cfg config.Provider) *deps.Deps {
-	l := langs.NewLanguage("en", cfg)
-	l.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	cs, err := helpers.NewContentSpec(l, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-	return &deps.Deps{
-		Language:    l,
-		Cfg:         cfg,
-		Fs:          hugofs.NewMem(l),
-		ContentSpec: cs,
-		Log:         loggers.NewErrorLogger(),
-	}
-}
-
-func newTestNs() *Namespace {
-	return New(newDeps(config.NewWithTestDefaults()))
+func newNs() *Namespace {
+	return New(testconfig.GetTestDeps(nil, nil))
 }
diff --git a/tpl/collections/complement_test.go b/tpl/collections/complement_test.go
index 6c13ab5c4..761a2451c 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/complement_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/complement_test.go
@@ -17,10 +17,6 @@ import (
 	"reflect"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
@@ -36,7 +32,7 @@ func TestComplement(t *testing.T) {
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	s1 := []TstX{{A: "a"}, {A: "b"}, {A: "d"}, {A: "e"}}
 	s2 := []TstX{{A: "b"}, {A: "e"}}
diff --git a/tpl/collections/index.go b/tpl/collections/index.go
index e4362fdc3..df932f7c6 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/index.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/index.go
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) doIndex(item any, args ...any) (any, error) {
 
 	lowerm, ok := item.(maps.Params)
 	if ok {
-		return lowerm.Get(cast.ToStringSlice(indices)...), nil
+		return lowerm.GetNested(cast.ToStringSlice(indices)...), nil
 	}
 
 	for _, i := range indices {
diff --git a/tpl/collections/index_test.go b/tpl/collections/index_test.go
index 7c917c443..0c5a58756 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/index_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/index_test.go
@@ -18,17 +18,14 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 )
 
 func TestIndex(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	var (
 		emptyInterface any
diff --git a/tpl/collections/merge_test.go b/tpl/collections/merge_test.go
index 4dbc30741..7809152d4 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/merge_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/merge_test.go
@@ -19,9 +19,6 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/parser/metadecoders"
 
@@ -29,7 +26,7 @@ import (
 )
 
 func TestMerge(t *testing.T) {
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	simpleMap := map[string]any{"a": 1, "b": 2}
 
@@ -164,7 +161,7 @@ func TestMerge(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestMergeDataFormats(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	toml1 := `
 V1 = "v1_1"
diff --git a/tpl/collections/sort.go b/tpl/collections/sort.go
index 9a1928b00..83029b310 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/sort.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/sort.go
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Sort(l any, args ...any) (any, error) {
 		return nil, errors.New("can't sort " + reflect.ValueOf(l).Type().String())
 	}
 
-	collator := langs.GetCollator(ns.deps.Language)
+	collator := langs.GetCollator(ns.deps.Conf.Language())
 
 	// Create a list of pairs that will be used to do the sort
 	p := pairList{Collator: collator, sortComp: ns.sortComp, SortAsc: true, SliceType: sliceType}
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Sort(l any, args ...any) (any, error) {
 					}
 					// Special handling of lower cased maps.
 					if params, ok := v.Interface().(maps.Params); ok {
-						v = reflect.ValueOf(params.Get(path[i+1:]...))
+						v = reflect.ValueOf(params.GetNested(path[i+1:]...))
 						break
 					}
 				}
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Sort(l any, args ...any) (any, error) {
 					}
 					// Special handling of lower cased maps.
 					if params, ok := v.Interface().(maps.Params); ok {
-						v = reflect.ValueOf(params.Get(path[i+1:]...))
+						v = reflect.ValueOf(params.GetNested(path[i+1:]...))
 						break
 					}
 				}
diff --git a/tpl/collections/sort_test.go b/tpl/collections/sort_test.go
index a4adccf51..da9c75d04 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/sort_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/sort_test.go
@@ -19,10 +19,6 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 )
 
 type stringsSlice []string
@@ -30,9 +26,7 @@ type stringsSlice []string
 func TestSort(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{
-		Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New()),
-	})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	type ts struct {
 		MyInt    int
diff --git a/tpl/collections/symdiff_test.go b/tpl/collections/symdiff_test.go
index e5494d5a0..548f91b6c 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/symdiff_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/symdiff_test.go
@@ -17,10 +17,6 @@ import (
 	"reflect"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
@@ -29,7 +25,7 @@ func TestSymDiff(t *testing.T) {
 
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	s1 := []TstX{{A: "a"}, {A: "b"}}
 	s2 := []TstX{{A: "a"}, {A: "e"}}
diff --git a/tpl/collections/where.go b/tpl/collections/where.go
index df29baf13..b20c290fa 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/where.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/where.go
@@ -380,7 +380,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) checkWhereArray(seqv, kv, mv reflect.Value, path []string,
 
 		if kv.Kind() == reflect.String {
 			if params, ok := rvv.Interface().(maps.Params); ok {
-				vvv = reflect.ValueOf(params.Get(path...))
+				vvv = reflect.ValueOf(params.GetNested(path...))
 			} else {
 				vvv = rvv
 				for i, elemName := range path {
@@ -394,7 +394,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) checkWhereArray(seqv, kv, mv reflect.Value, path []string,
 					if i < len(path)-1 && vvv.IsValid() {
 						if params, ok := vvv.Interface().(maps.Params); ok {
 							// The current path element is the map itself, .Params.
-							vvv = reflect.ValueOf(params.Get(path[i+1:]...))
+							vvv = reflect.ValueOf(params.GetNested(path[i+1:]...))
 							break
 						}
 					}
diff --git a/tpl/collections/where_test.go b/tpl/collections/where_test.go
index 9a65de3d5..e5ae85e88 100644
--- a/tpl/collections/where_test.go
+++ b/tpl/collections/where_test.go
@@ -22,16 +22,12 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/maps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
-
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 )
 
 func TestWhere(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	type Mid struct {
 		Tst TstX
@@ -685,7 +681,7 @@ func TestWhere(t *testing.T) {
 func TestCheckCondition(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Language: langs.NewDefaultLanguage(config.New())})
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	type expect struct {
 		result  bool
diff --git a/tpl/compare/init.go b/tpl/compare/init.go
index f080647b1..f70b19254 100644
--- a/tpl/compare/init.go
+++ b/tpl/compare/init.go
@@ -25,11 +25,12 @@ const name = "compare"
 
 func init() {
 	f := func(d *deps.Deps) *internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace {
-		if d.Language == nil {
+		language := d.Conf.Language()
+		if language == nil {
 			panic("language must be set")
 		}
 
-		ctx := New(langs.GetLocation(d.Language), false)
+		ctx := New(langs.GetLocation(language), false)
 
 		ns := &internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace{
 			Name:    name,
diff --git a/tpl/crypto/crypto.go b/tpl/crypto/crypto.go
index d40ddbe84..c721d401b 100644
--- a/tpl/crypto/crypto.go
+++ b/tpl/crypto/crypto.go
@@ -70,6 +70,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) SHA256(v any) (string, error) {
 }
 
 // FNV32a hashes v using fnv32a algorithm.
+// <docsmeta>{"newIn": "0.98.0" }</docsmeta>
 func (ns *Namespace) FNV32a(v any) (int, error) {
 	conv, err := cast.ToStringE(v)
 	if err != nil {
diff --git a/tpl/data/data.go b/tpl/data/data.go
index 5cdc96c59..251cf1a4f 100644
--- a/tpl/data/data.go
+++ b/tpl/data/data.go
@@ -42,8 +42,8 @@ import (
 func New(deps *deps.Deps) *Namespace {
 	return &Namespace{
 		deps:         deps,
-		cacheGetCSV:  deps.FileCaches.GetCSVCache(),
-		cacheGetJSON: deps.FileCaches.GetJSONCache(),
+		cacheGetCSV:  deps.ResourceSpec.FileCaches.GetCSVCache(),
+		cacheGetJSON: deps.ResourceSpec.FileCaches.GetJSONCache(),
 		client:       http.DefaultClient,
 	}
 }
diff --git a/tpl/data/data_test.go b/tpl/data/data_test.go
index 3d365e5fb..f10b88a32 100644
--- a/tpl/data/data_test.go
+++ b/tpl/data/data_test.go
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ func TestGetCSV(t *testing.T) {
 
 			// Setup local test file for schema-less URLs
 			if !strings.Contains(test.url, ":") && !strings.HasPrefix(test.url, "fail/") {
-				f, err := ns.deps.Fs.Source.Create(filepath.Join(ns.deps.Cfg.GetString("workingDir"), test.url))
+				f, err := ns.deps.Fs.Source.Create(filepath.Join(ns.deps.Conf.BaseConfig().WorkingDir, test.url))
 				c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil, msg)
 				f.WriteString(test.content)
 				f.Close()
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ func TestGetJSON(t *testing.T) {
 
 			// Setup local test file for schema-less URLs
 			if !strings.Contains(test.url, ":") && !strings.HasPrefix(test.url, "fail/") {
-				f, err := ns.deps.Fs.Source.Create(filepath.Join(ns.deps.Cfg.GetString("workingDir"), test.url))
+				f, err := ns.deps.Fs.Source.Create(filepath.Join(ns.deps.Conf.BaseConfig().WorkingDir, test.url))
 				c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil, msg)
 				f.WriteString(test.content)
 				f.Close()
diff --git a/tpl/data/resources.go b/tpl/data/resources.go
index d7c1a1574..45764dae7 100644
--- a/tpl/data/resources.go
+++ b/tpl/data/resources.go
@@ -24,7 +24,6 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
@@ -100,8 +99,8 @@ func (ns *Namespace) getRemote(cache *filecache.Cache, unmarshal func([]byte) (b
 }
 
 // getLocal loads the content of a local file
-func getLocal(url string, fs afero.Fs, cfg config.Provider) ([]byte, error) {
-	filename := filepath.Join(cfg.GetString("workingDir"), url)
+func getLocal(workingDir, url string, fs afero.Fs) ([]byte, error) {
+	filename := filepath.Join(workingDir, url)
 	return afero.ReadFile(fs, filename)
 }
 
@@ -114,7 +113,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) getResource(cache *filecache.Cache, unmarshal func(b []byte
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
-		b, err := getLocal(url, ns.deps.Fs.Source, ns.deps.Cfg)
+		b, err := getLocal(ns.deps.Conf.BaseConfig().WorkingDir, url, ns.deps.Fs.Source)
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
diff --git a/tpl/data/resources_test.go b/tpl/data/resources_test.go
index 44f0f9ac3..ad4ab20f4 100644
--- a/tpl/data/resources_test.go
+++ b/tpl/data/resources_test.go
@@ -18,30 +18,31 @@ import (
 	"net/http"
 	"net/http/httptest"
 	"net/url"
+	"path/filepath"
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/security"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/modules"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/cache/filecache"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/hexec"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 )
 
 func TestScpGetLocal(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(v)
+	v := config.New()
+	workingDir := "/my/working/dir"
+	v.Set("workingDir", workingDir)
+	v.Set("publishDir", "public")
+	fs := hugofs.NewFromOld(afero.NewMemMapFs(), v)
 	ps := helpers.FilePathSeparator
 
 	tests := []struct {
@@ -57,12 +58,12 @@ func TestScpGetLocal(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
 		r := bytes.NewReader(test.content)
-		err := helpers.WriteToDisk(test.path, r, fs.Source)
+		err := helpers.WriteToDisk(filepath.Join(workingDir, test.path), r, fs.Source)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Error(err)
 		}
 
-		c, err := getLocal(test.path, fs.Source, v)
+		c, err := getLocal(workingDir, test.path, fs.Source)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Errorf("Error getting resource content: %s", err)
 		}
@@ -145,7 +146,7 @@ func TestScpGetRemoteParallel(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
 
 	for _, ignoreCache := range []bool{false} {
-		cfg := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+		cfg := config.New()
 		cfg.Set("ignoreCache", ignoreCache)
 
 		ns := New(newDeps(cfg))
@@ -180,51 +181,21 @@ func TestScpGetRemoteParallel(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func newDeps(cfg config.Provider) *deps.Deps {
-	cfg.Set("resourceDir", "resources")
-	cfg.Set("dataDir", "resources")
-	cfg.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-	cfg.Set("assetDir", "assets")
-	cfg.Set("layoutDir", "layouts")
-	cfg.Set("archetypeDir", "archetypes")
-
-	langs.LoadLanguageSettings(cfg, nil)
-	mod, err := modules.CreateProjectModule(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-	cfg.Set("allModules", modules.Modules{mod})
-
-	ex := hexec.New(security.DefaultConfig)
-
-	logger := loggers.NewIgnorableLogger(loggers.NewErrorLogger(), "none")
-	cs, err := helpers.NewContentSpec(cfg, logger, afero.NewMemMapFs(), ex)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-
-	fs := hugofs.NewMem(cfg)
-
-	p, err := helpers.NewPathSpec(fs, cfg, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, cfg)
+	logger := loggers.NewIgnorableLogger(loggers.NewErrorLogger(), nil)
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afero.NewMemMapFs(), conf.BaseConfig())
+
+	d := &deps.Deps{
+		Fs:   fs,
+		Log:  logger,
+		Conf: conf,
 	}
-
-	fileCaches, err := filecache.NewCaches(p)
-	if err != nil {
+	if err := d.Init(); err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
-
-	return &deps.Deps{
-		Cfg:         cfg,
-		Fs:          fs,
-		FileCaches:  fileCaches,
-		ExecHelper:  ex,
-		ContentSpec: cs,
-		Log:         logger,
-		LogDistinct: helpers.NewDistinctLogger(logger),
-	}
+	return d
 }
 
 func newTestNs() *Namespace {
-	return New(newDeps(config.NewWithTestDefaults()))
+	return New(newDeps(config.New()))
 }
diff --git a/tpl/fmt/fmt.go b/tpl/fmt/fmt.go
index e767a3ea9..0667bcedd 100644
--- a/tpl/fmt/fmt.go
+++ b/tpl/fmt/fmt.go
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ import (
 func New(d *deps.Deps) *Namespace {
 	ignorableLogger, ok := d.Log.(loggers.IgnorableLogger)
 	if !ok {
-		ignorableLogger = loggers.NewIgnorableLogger(d.Log)
+		ignorableLogger = loggers.NewIgnorableLogger(d.Log, nil)
 	}
 
 	distinctLogger := helpers.NewDistinctLogger(d.Log)
diff --git a/tpl/hugo/init.go b/tpl/hugo/init.go
index ad589722c..32a279343 100644
--- a/tpl/hugo/init.go
+++ b/tpl/hugo/init.go
@@ -25,6 +25,9 @@ const name = "hugo"
 
 func init() {
 	f := func(d *deps.Deps) *internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace {
+		if d.Site == nil {
+			panic("no site in deps")
+		}
 		h := d.Site.Hugo()
 
 		ns := &internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace{
diff --git a/tpl/images/images_test.go b/tpl/images/images_test.go
index aa6896521..819c58af1 100644
--- a/tpl/images/images_test.go
+++ b/tpl/images/images_test.go
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ import (
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
 	"github.com/spf13/afero"
@@ -82,10 +83,14 @@ func TestNSConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	v := config.NewWithTestDefaults()
+	afs := afero.NewMemMapFs()
+	v := config.New()
 	v.Set("workingDir", "/a/b")
+	conf := testconfig.GetTestConfig(afs, v)
+	bcfg := conf.BaseConfig()
+	fs := hugofs.NewFrom(afs, bcfg)
 
-	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Fs: hugofs.NewMem(v)})
+	ns := New(&deps.Deps{Fs: fs, Conf: conf})
 
 	for _, test := range configTests {
 
@@ -99,7 +104,7 @@ func TestNSConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		// cast path to string for afero.WriteFile
 		sp, err := cast.ToStringE(test.path)
 		c.Assert(err, qt.IsNil)
-		afero.WriteFile(ns.deps.Fs.Source, filepath.Join(v.GetString("workingDir"), sp), test.input, 0755)
+		afero.WriteFile(ns.deps.Fs.Source, filepath.Join(bcfg.WorkingDir, sp), test.input, 0755)
 
 		result, err := ns.Config(test.path)
 
diff --git a/tpl/lang/init.go b/tpl/lang/init.go
index 62c3a56a0..4591800a0 100644
--- a/tpl/lang/init.go
+++ b/tpl/lang/init.go
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ const name = "lang"
 
 func init() {
 	f := func(d *deps.Deps) *internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace {
-		ctx := New(d, langs.GetTranslator(d.Language))
+		ctx := New(d, langs.GetTranslator(d.Conf.Language()))
 
 		ns := &internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace{
 			Name:    name,
diff --git a/tpl/math/math.go b/tpl/math/math.go
index a1c12425f..67c6d06c5 100644
--- a/tpl/math/math.go
+++ b/tpl/math/math.go
@@ -208,6 +208,7 @@ var counter uint64
 // have the needed precision (especially on Windows).
 // Note that given the parallel nature of Hugo, you cannot use this to get sequences of numbers,
 // and the counter will reset on new builds.
+// <docsmeta>{"identifiers": ["now.UnixNano"] }</docsmeta>
 func (ns *Namespace) Counter() uint64 {
 	return atomic.AddUint64(&counter, uint64(1))
 }
diff --git a/tpl/openapi/openapi3/openapi3.go b/tpl/openapi/openapi3/openapi3.go
index 74c731f02..38857dd98 100644
--- a/tpl/openapi/openapi3/openapi3.go
+++ b/tpl/openapi/openapi3/openapi3.go
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Unmarshal(r resource.UnmarshableResource) (*OpenAPIDocument
 	}
 
 	v, err := ns.cache.GetOrCreate(key, func() (any, error) {
-		f := metadecoders.FormatFromMediaType(r.MediaType())
+		f := metadecoders.FormatFromStrings(r.MediaType().Suffixes()...)
 		if f == "" {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("MIME %q not supported", r.MediaType())
 		}
diff --git a/tpl/partials/partials.go b/tpl/partials/partials.go
index 32f86b332..3834529ce 100644
--- a/tpl/partials/partials.go
+++ b/tpl/partials/partials.go
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/bep/lazycache"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
+
 	texttemplate "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl/internal/go_templates/texttemplate"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
@@ -34,10 +35,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 )
 
-// TestTemplateProvider is global deps.ResourceProvider.
-// NOTE: It's currently unused.
-var TestTemplateProvider deps.ResourceProvider
-
 type partialCacheKey struct {
 	Name     string
 	Variants []any
@@ -130,7 +127,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Include(ctx context.Context, name string, contextList ...an
 
 func (ns *Namespace) includWithTimeout(ctx context.Context, name string, dataList ...any) includeResult {
 	// Create a new context with a timeout not connected to the incoming context.
-	timeoutCtx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), ns.deps.Timeout)
+	timeoutCtx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), ns.deps.Conf.Timeout())
 	defer cancel()
 
 	res := make(chan includeResult, 1)
@@ -145,7 +142,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) includWithTimeout(ctx context.Context, name string, dataLis
 	case <-timeoutCtx.Done():
 		err := timeoutCtx.Err()
 		if err == context.DeadlineExceeded {
-			err = fmt.Errorf("partial %q timed out after %s. This is most likely due to infinite recursion. If this is just a slow template, you can try to increase the 'timeout' config setting.", name, ns.deps.Timeout)
+			err = fmt.Errorf("partial %q timed out after %s. This is most likely due to infinite recursion. If this is just a slow template, you can try to increase the 'timeout' config setting.", name, ns.deps.Conf.Timeout())
 		}
 		return includeResult{err: err}
 	}
diff --git a/tpl/path/path_test.go b/tpl/path/path_test.go
index cc49bf28c..e39e1d742 100644
--- a/tpl/path/path_test.go
+++ b/tpl/path/path_test.go
@@ -19,17 +19,19 @@ import (
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/paths"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 )
 
-var ns = New(&deps.Deps{Cfg: config.New()})
+func newNs() *Namespace {
+	return New(testconfig.GetTestDeps(nil, nil))
+}
 
 type tstNoStringer struct{}
 
 func TestBase(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		path   any
@@ -60,6 +62,7 @@ func TestBase(t *testing.T) {
 func TestBaseName(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		path   any
@@ -90,6 +93,7 @@ func TestBaseName(t *testing.T) {
 func TestDir(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		path   any
@@ -120,6 +124,7 @@ func TestDir(t *testing.T) {
 func TestExt(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		path   any
@@ -148,6 +153,7 @@ func TestExt(t *testing.T) {
 func TestJoin(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		elements any
@@ -182,6 +188,7 @@ func TestJoin(t *testing.T) {
 func TestSplit(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		path   any
@@ -210,6 +217,7 @@ func TestSplit(t *testing.T) {
 func TestClean(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		path   any
diff --git a/tpl/site/init.go b/tpl/site/init.go
index 3d293f3fe..1c018e14e 100644
--- a/tpl/site/init.go
+++ b/tpl/site/init.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2023 The Hugo Authors. All rights reserved.
 //
 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 // you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"context"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/resources/page"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl/internal"
 )
@@ -26,16 +27,12 @@ const name = "site"
 
 func init() {
 	f := func(d *deps.Deps) *internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace {
-		s := d.Site
+		s := page.WrapSite(d.Site)
 		ns := &internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace{
 			Name:    name,
 			Context: func(cctx context.Context, args ...any) (any, error) { return s, nil },
 		}
 
-		if s == nil {
-			panic("no Site")
-		}
-
 		// We just add the Site as the namespace here. No method mappings.
 
 		return ns
diff --git a/tpl/strings/strings.go b/tpl/strings/strings.go
index 6c6e9b9d3..9f16f1581 100644
--- a/tpl/strings/strings.go
+++ b/tpl/strings/strings.go
@@ -33,17 +33,14 @@ import (
 
 // New returns a new instance of the strings-namespaced template functions.
 func New(d *deps.Deps) *Namespace {
-	titleCaseStyle := d.Cfg.GetString("titleCaseStyle")
-	titleFunc := helpers.GetTitleFunc(titleCaseStyle)
-	return &Namespace{deps: d, titleFunc: titleFunc}
+	return &Namespace{deps: d}
 }
 
 // Namespace provides template functions for the "strings" namespace.
 // Most functions mimic the Go stdlib, but the order of the parameters may be
 // different to ease their use in the Go template system.
 type Namespace struct {
-	titleFunc func(s string) string
-	deps      *deps.Deps
+	deps *deps.Deps
 }
 
 // CountRunes returns the number of runes in s, excluding whitespace.
@@ -163,6 +160,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) ContainsAny(s, chars any) (bool, error) {
 
 // ContainsNonSpace reports whether s contains any non-space characters as defined
 // by Unicode's White Space property,
+// <docsmeta>{"newIn": "0.111.0" }</docsmeta>
 func (ns *Namespace) ContainsNonSpace(s any) bool {
 	ss := cast.ToString(s)
 
@@ -383,8 +381,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Title(s any) (string, error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
-
-	return ns.titleFunc(ss), nil
+	return ns.deps.Conf.CreateTitle(ss), nil
 }
 
 // FirstUpper converts s making  the first character upper case.
diff --git a/tpl/strings/strings_test.go b/tpl/strings/strings_test.go
index a230d4a48..43334a8e8 100644
--- a/tpl/strings/strings_test.go
+++ b/tpl/strings/strings_test.go
@@ -17,14 +17,16 @@ import (
 	"html/template"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 	"github.com/spf13/cast"
 )
 
-var ns = New(&deps.Deps{Cfg: config.New()})
+var ns = New(&deps.Deps{
+	Conf: testconfig.GetTestConfig(nil, nil),
+})
 
 type tstNoStringer struct{}
 
diff --git a/tpl/template.go b/tpl/template.go
index f71de8bb2..7a793101c 100644
--- a/tpl/template.go
+++ b/tpl/template.go
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ import (
 	"unicode"
 
 	bp "github.com/gohugoio/hugo/bufferpool"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output/layouts"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
 
@@ -56,11 +57,17 @@ type UnusedTemplatesProvider interface {
 	UnusedTemplates() []FileInfo
 }
 
+// TemplateHandlers holds the templates needed by Hugo.
+type TemplateHandlers struct {
+	Tmpl    TemplateHandler
+	TxtTmpl TemplateParseFinder
+}
+
 // TemplateHandler finds and executes templates.
 type TemplateHandler interface {
 	TemplateFinder
 	ExecuteWithContext(ctx context.Context, t Template, wr io.Writer, data any) error
-	LookupLayout(d output.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (Template, bool, error)
+	LookupLayout(d layouts.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (Template, bool, error)
 	HasTemplate(name string) bool
 }
 
diff --git a/tpl/time/init.go b/tpl/time/init.go
index 583dacd4a..01783270f 100644
--- a/tpl/time/init.go
+++ b/tpl/time/init.go
@@ -26,10 +26,10 @@ const name = "time"
 
 func init() {
 	f := func(d *deps.Deps) *internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace {
-		if d.Language == nil {
+		if d.Conf.Language() == nil {
 			panic("Language must be set")
 		}
-		ctx := New(langs.GetTimeFormatter(d.Language), langs.GetLocation(d.Language))
+		ctx := New(langs.GetTimeFormatter(d.Conf.Language()), langs.GetLocation(d.Conf.Language()))
 
 		ns := &internal.TemplateFuncsNamespace{
 			Name: name,
diff --git a/tpl/tplimpl/template.go b/tpl/tplimpl/template.go
index 53e6b4902..e706bca4c 100644
--- a/tpl/tplimpl/template.go
+++ b/tpl/tplimpl/template.go
@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@ import (
 	"unicode/utf8"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/types"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output/layouts"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
 
@@ -131,7 +132,7 @@ func newStandaloneTextTemplate(funcs map[string]any) tpl.TemplateParseFinder {
 	}
 }
 
-func newTemplateExec(d *deps.Deps) (*templateExec, error) {
+func newTemplateHandlers(d *deps.Deps) (*tpl.TemplateHandlers, error) {
 	exec, funcs := newTemplateExecuter(d)
 	funcMap := make(map[string]any)
 	for k, v := range funcs {
@@ -139,7 +140,7 @@ func newTemplateExec(d *deps.Deps) (*templateExec, error) {
 	}
 
 	var templateUsageTracker map[string]templateInfo
-	if d.Cfg.GetBool("printUnusedTemplates") {
+	if d.Conf.PrintUnusedTemplates() {
 		templateUsageTracker = make(map[string]templateInfo)
 	}
 
@@ -156,7 +157,7 @@ func newTemplateExec(d *deps.Deps) (*templateExec, error) {
 		main: newTemplateNamespace(funcMap),
 
 		Deps:                d,
-		layoutHandler:       output.NewLayoutHandler(),
+		layoutHandler:       layouts.NewLayoutHandler(),
 		layoutsFs:           d.BaseFs.Layouts.Fs,
 		layoutTemplateCache: make(map[layoutCacheKey]layoutCacheEntry),
 
@@ -178,16 +179,15 @@ func newTemplateExec(d *deps.Deps) (*templateExec, error) {
 		templateHandler: h,
 	}
 
-	d.SetTmpl(e)
-	d.SetTextTmpl(newStandaloneTextTemplate(funcMap))
-
-	if d.WithTemplate != nil {
-		if err := d.WithTemplate(e); err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
+	if err := e.postTransform(); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	return e, nil
+	return &tpl.TemplateHandlers{
+		Tmpl:    e,
+		TxtTmpl: newStandaloneTextTemplate(funcMap),
+	}, nil
+
 }
 
 func newTemplateNamespace(funcs map[string]any) *templateNamespace {
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ func newTemplateState(templ tpl.Template, info templateInfo) *templateState {
 }
 
 type layoutCacheKey struct {
-	d output.LayoutDescriptor
+	d layouts.LayoutDescriptor
 	f string
 }
 
@@ -232,10 +232,6 @@ func (t templateExec) Clone(d *deps.Deps) *templateExec {
 }
 
 func (t *templateExec) Execute(templ tpl.Template, wr io.Writer, data any) error {
-	// TOD1
-	if true {
-		//panic("not implemented")
-	}
 	return t.ExecuteWithContext(context.Background(), templ, wr, data)
 }
 
@@ -250,6 +246,7 @@ func (t *templateExec) ExecuteWithContext(ctx context.Context, templ tpl.Templat
 
 	if t.templateUsageTracker != nil {
 		if ts, ok := templ.(*templateState); ok {
+
 			t.templateUsageTrackerMu.Lock()
 			if _, found := t.templateUsageTracker[ts.Name()]; !found {
 				t.templateUsageTracker[ts.Name()] = ts.info
@@ -335,7 +332,7 @@ type templateHandler struct {
 	// stored in the root of this filesystem.
 	layoutsFs afero.Fs
 
-	layoutHandler *output.LayoutHandler
+	layoutHandler *layouts.LayoutHandler
 
 	layoutTemplateCache   map[layoutCacheKey]layoutCacheEntry
 	layoutTemplateCacheMu sync.RWMutex
@@ -392,7 +389,7 @@ func (t *templateHandler) Lookup(name string) (tpl.Template, bool) {
 	return nil, false
 }
 
-func (t *templateHandler) LookupLayout(d output.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (tpl.Template, bool, error) {
+func (t *templateHandler) LookupLayout(d layouts.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (tpl.Template, bool, error) {
 	key := layoutCacheKey{d, f.Name}
 	t.layoutTemplateCacheMu.RLock()
 	if cacheVal, found := t.layoutTemplateCache[key]; found {
@@ -459,8 +456,10 @@ func (t *templateHandler) HasTemplate(name string) bool {
 	return found
 }
 
-func (t *templateHandler) findLayout(d output.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (tpl.Template, bool, error) {
-	layouts, _ := t.layoutHandler.For(d, f)
+func (t *templateHandler) findLayout(d layouts.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format) (tpl.Template, bool, error) {
+	d.OutputFormatName = f.Name
+	d.Suffix = f.MediaType.FirstSuffix.Suffix
+	layouts, _ := t.layoutHandler.For(d)
 	for _, name := range layouts {
 		templ, found := t.main.Lookup(name)
 		if found {
@@ -474,7 +473,7 @@ func (t *templateHandler) findLayout(d output.LayoutDescriptor, f output.Format)
 		}
 
 		d.Baseof = true
-		baseLayouts, _ := t.layoutHandler.For(d, f)
+		baseLayouts, _ := t.layoutHandler.For(d)
 		var base templateInfo
 		found = false
 		for _, l := range baseLayouts {
@@ -813,7 +812,8 @@ func (t *templateHandler) loadTemplates() error {
 
 		name := strings.TrimPrefix(filepath.ToSlash(path), "/")
 		filename := filepath.Base(path)
-		outputFormat, found := t.OutputFormatsConfig.FromFilename(filename)
+		outputFormats := t.Conf.GetConfigSection("outputFormats").(output.Formats)
+		outputFormat, found := outputFormats.FromFilename(filename)
 
 		if found && outputFormat.IsPlainText {
 			name = textTmplNamePrefix + name
diff --git a/tpl/tplimpl/templateProvider.go b/tpl/tplimpl/templateProvider.go
index 933ee7dc3..435868964 100644
--- a/tpl/tplimpl/templateProvider.go
+++ b/tpl/tplimpl/templateProvider.go
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ package tplimpl
 
 import (
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl"
 )
 
 // TemplateProvider manages templates.
@@ -25,17 +26,26 @@ var DefaultTemplateProvider *TemplateProvider
 
 // Update updates the Hugo Template System in the provided Deps
 // with all the additional features, templates & functions.
-func (*TemplateProvider) Update(d *deps.Deps) error {
-	tmpl, err := newTemplateExec(d)
+func (*TemplateProvider) NewResource(dst *deps.Deps) error {
+	handlers, err := newTemplateHandlers(dst)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	return tmpl.postTransform()
+	dst.SetTempl(handlers)
+	return nil
 }
 
 // Clone clones.
-func (*TemplateProvider) Clone(d *deps.Deps) error {
-	t := d.Tmpl().(*templateExec)
-	d.SetTmpl(t.Clone(d))
+func (*TemplateProvider) CloneResource(dst, src *deps.Deps) error {
+	t := src.Tmpl().(*templateExec)
+	c := t.Clone(dst)
+	funcMap := make(map[string]any)
+	for k, v := range c.funcs {
+		funcMap[k] = v.Interface()
+	}
+	dst.SetTempl(&tpl.TemplateHandlers{
+		Tmpl:    c,
+		TxtTmpl: newStandaloneTextTemplate(funcMap),
+	})
 	return nil
 }
diff --git a/tpl/tplimpl/template_funcs.go b/tpl/tplimpl/template_funcs.go
index 1979fa1c9..97d1b40dd 100644
--- a/tpl/tplimpl/template_funcs.go
+++ b/tpl/tplimpl/template_funcs.go
@@ -71,8 +71,10 @@ var (
 )
 
 type templateExecHelper struct {
-	running bool // whether we're in server mode.
-	funcs   map[string]reflect.Value
+	running    bool // whether we're in server mode.
+	site       reflect.Value
+	siteParams reflect.Value
+	funcs      map[string]reflect.Value
 }
 
 func (t *templateExecHelper) GetFunc(ctx context.Context, tmpl texttemplate.Preparer, name string) (fn reflect.Value, firstArg reflect.Value, found bool) {
@@ -111,6 +113,8 @@ func (t *templateExecHelper) GetMapValue(ctx context.Context, tmpl texttemplate.
 	return v, v.IsValid()
 }
 
+var typeParams = reflect.TypeOf(maps.Params{})
+
 func (t *templateExecHelper) GetMethod(ctx context.Context, tmpl texttemplate.Preparer, receiver reflect.Value, name string) (method reflect.Value, firstArg reflect.Value) {
 	if t.running {
 		switch name {
@@ -123,6 +127,13 @@ func (t *templateExecHelper) GetMethod(ctx context.Context, tmpl texttemplate.Pr
 		}
 	}
 
+	if strings.EqualFold(name, "mainsections") && receiver.Type() == typeParams && receiver.Pointer() == t.siteParams.Pointer() {
+		// MOved to site.MainSections in Hugo 0.112.0.
+		receiver = t.site
+		name = "MainSections"
+
+	}
+
 	fn := hreflect.GetMethodByName(receiver, name)
 	if !fn.IsValid() {
 		return zero, zero
@@ -167,8 +178,10 @@ func newTemplateExecuter(d *deps.Deps) (texttemplate.Executer, map[string]reflec
 	}
 
 	exeHelper := &templateExecHelper{
-		running: d.Running,
-		funcs:   funcsv,
+		running:    d.Conf.Running(),
+		funcs:      funcsv,
+		site:       reflect.ValueOf(d.Site),
+		siteParams: reflect.ValueOf(d.Site.Params()),
 	}
 
 	return texttemplate.NewExecuter(
diff --git a/tpl/transform/transform_test.go b/tpl/transform/transform_test.go
index 86ddb1259..d645ca8e2 100644
--- a/tpl/transform/transform_test.go
+++ b/tpl/transform/transform_test.go
@@ -19,17 +19,10 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/common/loggers"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/tpl/transform"
-	"github.com/spf13/afero"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/helpers"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/langs"
 )
 
 type tstNoStringer struct{}
@@ -254,21 +247,3 @@ func TestPlainify(t *testing.T) {
 		b.Assert(result, qt.Equals, test.expect)
 	}
 }
-
-func newDeps(cfg config.Provider) *deps.Deps {
-	cfg.Set("contentDir", "content")
-	cfg.Set("i18nDir", "i18n")
-
-	l := langs.NewLanguage("en", cfg)
-
-	cs, err := helpers.NewContentSpec(l, loggers.NewErrorLogger(), afero.NewMemMapFs(), nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(err)
-	}
-
-	return &deps.Deps{
-		Cfg:         cfg,
-		Fs:          hugofs.NewMem(l),
-		ContentSpec: cs,
-	}
-}
diff --git a/tpl/transform/unmarshal.go b/tpl/transform/unmarshal.go
index f5ff63585..3936126ca 100644
--- a/tpl/transform/unmarshal.go
+++ b/tpl/transform/unmarshal.go
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ func (ns *Namespace) Unmarshal(args ...any) (any, error) {
 		}
 
 		return ns.cache.GetOrCreate(key, func() (any, error) {
-			f := metadecoders.FormatFromMediaType(r.MediaType())
+			f := metadecoders.FormatFromStrings(r.MediaType().Suffixes()...)
 			if f == "" {
 				return nil, fmt.Errorf("MIME %q not supported", r.MediaType())
 			}
diff --git a/tpl/transform/unmarshal_test.go b/tpl/transform/unmarshal_test.go
index e63f96de2..12774298a 100644
--- a/tpl/transform/unmarshal_test.go
+++ b/tpl/transform/unmarshal_test.go
@@ -105,26 +105,26 @@ func TestUnmarshal(t *testing.T) {
 		{`slogan = "Hugo Rocks!"`, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
 			assertSlogan(m)
 		}},
-		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `slogan: "Hugo Rocks!"`, mime: media.YAMLType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
+		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `slogan: "Hugo Rocks!"`, mime: media.Builtin.YAMLType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
 			assertSlogan(m)
 		}},
-		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `{ "slogan": "Hugo Rocks!" }`, mime: media.JSONType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
+		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `{ "slogan": "Hugo Rocks!" }`, mime: media.Builtin.JSONType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
 			assertSlogan(m)
 		}},
-		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `slogan = "Hugo Rocks!"`, mime: media.TOMLType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
+		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `slogan = "Hugo Rocks!"`, mime: media.Builtin.TOMLType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
 			assertSlogan(m)
 		}},
-		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `<root><slogan>Hugo Rocks!</slogan></root>"`, mime: media.XMLType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
+		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `<root><slogan>Hugo Rocks!</slogan></root>"`, mime: media.Builtin.XMLType}, nil, func(m map[string]any) {
 			assertSlogan(m)
 		}},
 		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `1997,Ford,E350,"ac, abs, moon",3000.00
-1999,Chevy,"Venture ""Extended Edition""","",4900.00`, mime: media.CSVType}, nil, func(r [][]string) {
+1999,Chevy,"Venture ""Extended Edition""","",4900.00`, mime: media.Builtin.CSVType}, nil, func(r [][]string) {
 			b.Assert(len(r), qt.Equals, 2)
 			first := r[0]
 			b.Assert(len(first), qt.Equals, 5)
 			b.Assert(first[1], qt.Equals, "Ford")
 		}},
-		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `a;b;c`, mime: media.CSVType}, map[string]any{"delimiter": ";"}, func(r [][]string) {
+		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `a;b;c`, mime: media.Builtin.CSVType}, map[string]any{"delimiter": ";"}, func(r [][]string) {
 			b.Assert([][]string{{"a", "b", "c"}}, qt.DeepEquals, r)
 		}},
 		{"a,b,c", nil, func(r [][]string) {
@@ -135,13 +135,13 @@ func TestUnmarshal(t *testing.T) {
 		}},
 		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `
 % This is a comment
-a;b;c`, mime: media.CSVType}, map[string]any{"DElimiter": ";", "Comment": "%"}, func(r [][]string) {
+a;b;c`, mime: media.Builtin.CSVType}, map[string]any{"DElimiter": ";", "Comment": "%"}, func(r [][]string) {
 			b.Assert([][]string{{"a", "b", "c"}}, qt.DeepEquals, r)
 		}},
 		// errors
 		{"thisisnotavaliddataformat", nil, false},
-		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `invalid&toml"`, mime: media.TOMLType}, nil, false},
-		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `unsupported: MIME"`, mime: media.CalendarType}, nil, false},
+		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `invalid&toml"`, mime: media.Builtin.TOMLType}, nil, false},
+		{testContentResource{key: "r1", content: `unsupported: MIME"`, mime: media.Builtin.CalendarType}, nil, false},
 		{"thisisnotavaliddataformat", nil, false},
 		{`{ notjson }`, nil, false},
 		{tstNoStringer{}, nil, false},
@@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ func BenchmarkUnmarshalResource(b *testing.B) {
 	var jsons [numJsons]testContentResource
 	for i := 0; i < numJsons; i++ {
 		key := fmt.Sprintf("root%d", i)
-		jsons[i] = testContentResource{key: key, content: strings.Replace(testJSON, "ROOT_KEY", key, 1), mime: media.JSONType}
+		jsons[i] = testContentResource{key: key, content: strings.Replace(testJSON, "ROOT_KEY", key, 1), mime: media.Builtin.JSONType}
 	}
 
 	b.ResetTimer()
diff --git a/tpl/urls/urls.go b/tpl/urls/urls.go
index bfbd7304f..551b53875 100644
--- a/tpl/urls/urls.go
+++ b/tpl/urls/urls.go
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ import (
 func New(deps *deps.Deps) *Namespace {
 	return &Namespace{
 		deps:      deps,
-		multihost: deps.Cfg.GetBool("multihost"),
+		multihost: deps.Conf.IsMultihost(),
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/tpl/urls/urls_test.go b/tpl/urls/urls_test.go
index 73b5cd141..f33e128be 100644
--- a/tpl/urls/urls_test.go
+++ b/tpl/urls/urls_test.go
@@ -17,21 +17,22 @@ import (
 	"net/url"
 	"testing"
 
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config"
-
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/config/testconfig"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/htesting/hqt"
 
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
-	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/deps"
 )
 
-var ns = New(&deps.Deps{Cfg: config.New()})
+func newNs() *Namespace {
+	return New(testconfig.GetTestDeps(nil, nil))
+}
 
 type tstNoStringer struct{}
 
 func TestParse(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
 	c := qt.New(t)
+	ns := newNs()
 
 	for _, test := range []struct {
 		rawurl any
diff --git a/watchtestscripts.sh b/watchtestscripts.sh
new file mode 100755
index 000000000..2f6be079e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/watchtestscripts.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+#!/bin/bash
+
+trap exit SIGINT
+
+# I use "run tests on save" in my editor.
+# Unfortantly, changes to text files does not trigger this. Hence this workaround.
+while true; do find testscripts -type f -name "*.txt" | entr -pd touch main_test.go; done
\ No newline at end of file